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BACKGROUND: Snakebites are considered a neglected tropical disease responsible for many accidents, some fatal, and are related to poverty. The Brazilian Amazon has the highest incidence of snakebites per inhabitant, with the state of Pará having the most reported cases. For those who have difficult access to hospitals and pharmacies, this issue is even more urgent. METHODS: In this research, we worked together with the population of five riverine communities in Aritapera (Santarém-PA), a fluvial island located in the Lower Amazon floodplain (várzeas), in order to identify the species of venomous snakes and create a record of snakebites in the region and treatments carried out. RESULTS: Dwellers reported a high frequency of encounters throughout the year and mentioned five venomous ethnospecies, although we identified only Bothrops atrox. Approximately 28.7% of the participants had already been bitten, and in 15.8% of the interviews, they mentioned deaths from snakebites. The treatments varied between hospitalization (42.8%), home treatments (23.8%), both together (25.4%) and healers (7.9%). There were cases where no treatment, or just religious treatment, was performed. In general, no serious sequelae were reported. Although home treatments were more common in the past, many people maintained the practice of using them before going to the hospital. Among the most used are Pau X and the fat of the Amazon River Dolphin. The latter appears to be a recent discovery by locals and is considered very efficient both for humans and animals. CONCLUSION: Difficult access to health centers, a lack of energy to store antivenom and a high rate of encounters with snake place Aritapera dwellers in a vulnerable situation regarding snakebite accidents. In this context, they discovered treatments that improved their well-being until hospitalization. As the Amazon River dolphin is an endangered species, the use of its fat requires attention. In this sense, the dissemination of this knowledge is important to encourage studies that investigate which properties of this fat act as counterpoisons. By discovering substitutes that can be incorporated in other rural and remote communities, an economic and ecologically viable option for the health of residents can be promoted, in addition to valuing traditional knowledge.

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The practice of consuming wild fauna in Brazil is both culturally and socioeconomically questionable. Wild animals and their byproducts are sought for nutritional, medicinal, and/or supernatural reasons, with some taxa (e.g., songbirds) being kept as pets. This practice is concentrated in traditional and rural communities, as well as the rural exodus populations in large urban centers, maintained both by cultural preferences and for their role in food safety in part of the rural exodus community. A total of 564 taxa are known to be sold in wet markets in Brazil, with birds, fish, and mammals being the most commonly listed. There is great zoonotic outbreak potential in this consumption chain given the diversity of species involved (with several listed being known reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens), invasion of wild environments for hunting, unsanitary processing of carcasses, and consumption of most/all biotopes of the animal, as well as the creation of favorable conditions to cross-species pathogen transmission. Given its socioeconomic situation and the global trends in disease emergence, there is a risk of the future emergence of a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in Brazil through wildlife consumption.

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Successful and safe Equine Assisted Therapy (EAT) relies on proper horse training. Two inexperienced trainers applied Equine Learning Theory on three miniature horses destined for use in EAT, under the supervision of an experienced horse trainer. This six-month program included the following tasks: halter placement (catch) and corporal contact acceptation (brush), limb suspension for hoof cleaning (hoof), halter leading (lead), step back (back off), whip acceptation as an extension of the trainers arm (whip move), corporal and verbal cues for circular movement (lunging), and inhibition of the undesired behavior of biting (dont bite).  At each training session, the horse was scored for each task, ranging from 0 (not able to perform) to 4 (ideal performance). Tasks taught exclusively based on negative reinforcement (lead, back off and whip move) responded well to training, while training of those behaviors taught by a combination of association with negative reinforcement (lunging) or with punishment (dont bite) was not effective. Negative reinforcement alone was not enough to maintain the desired behavior once it was performed in hoof. No significative improvements were achieved on tasks that were already accepted by all (brush) or most (catch) of the animals.

O sucesso e a segurança da Terapia Assistida por Equinos (TAE) dependemdo treinamento adequado dos animais envolvidos. Duas treinadoras inexperientes aplicaram, sob supervisão de um treinador experiente, a Teoria do Aprendizado Equino em três cavalos miniatura destinados ao uso em TAE. O protocolo de treinamento aplicado por 6 meses incluiu: colocação do cabresto (pegar), aceitação do contato corporal (escovar), suspensão dos membros para higiene (casco), condução pelo cabresto (condução), recuar (recuar), aceitação do chicote como uma extensão do braço da treinadora (chicote), comandos verbais e corporais para o movimento em círculos (guia) e inibição do comportamento indesejado de morder (não morder). A cada sessão, cada cavalo recebeu um escore pela realização de cada tarefa, variando entre 0 (não executou) e 4 (desempenho ideal). Tarefas cujo aprendizado dependeu exclusivamente de reforço negativo (condução, recuar e chicote) responderam ao treinamento, ao contrário daquelas que dependeram da combinação de associação com reforço negativo (guia) ou com punição (não morder). O reforço negativo por si só não foi suficiente para a manutenção do comportamento desejado em casco. Nenhuma melhora significativa foi obtida nas tarefas que já eram aceitas por todos (escovar) ou pela maioria (pegar) dos animais.

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Successful and safe Equine Assisted Therapy (EAT) relies on proper horse training. Two inexperienced trainers applied Equine Learning Theory on three miniature horses destined for use in EAT, under the supervision of an experienced horse trainer. This six-month program included the following tasks: halter placement (catch) and corporal contact acceptation (brush), limb suspension for hoof cleaning (hoof), halter leading (lead), step back (back off), whip acceptation as an extension of the trainers arm (whip move), corporal and verbal cues for circular movement (lunging), and inhibition of the undesired behavior of biting (dont bite).  At each training session, the horse was scored for each task, ranging from 0 (not able to perform) to 4 (ideal performance). Tasks taught exclusively based on negative reinforcement (lead, back off and whip move) responded well to training, while training of those behaviors taught by a combination of association with negative reinforcement (lunging) or with punishment (dont bite) was not effective. Negative reinforcement alone was not enough to maintain the desired behavior once it was performed in hoof. No significative improvements were achieved on tasks that were already accepted by all (brush) or most (catch) of the animals.(AU)

O sucesso e a segurança da Terapia Assistida por Equinos (TAE) dependemdo treinamento adequado dos animais envolvidos. Duas treinadoras inexperientes aplicaram, sob supervisão de um treinador experiente, a Teoria do Aprendizado Equino em três cavalos miniatura destinados ao uso em TAE. O protocolo de treinamento aplicado por 6 meses incluiu: colocação do cabresto (pegar), aceitação do contato corporal (escovar), suspensão dos membros para higiene (casco), condução pelo cabresto (condução), recuar (recuar), aceitação do chicote como uma extensão do braço da treinadora (chicote), comandos verbais e corporais para o movimento em círculos (guia) e inibição do comportamento indesejado de morder (não morder). A cada sessão, cada cavalo recebeu um escore pela realização de cada tarefa, variando entre 0 (não executou) e 4 (desempenho ideal). Tarefas cujo aprendizado dependeu exclusivamente de reforço negativo (condução, recuar e chicote) responderam ao treinamento, ao contrário daquelas que dependeram da combinação de associação com reforço negativo (guia) ou com punição (não morder). O reforço negativo por si só não foi suficiente para a manutenção do comportamento desejado em casco. Nenhuma melhora significativa foi obtida nas tarefas que já eram aceitas por todos (escovar) ou pela maioria (pegar) dos animais.(AU)

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Abstract: Wild and domestic animals and their by-products are important ingredients in the preparation of medicines traditionally used in folk medicine, present in various human cultures since antiquity. However, the decline in the number of species in neotropical regions as a result of hunting for various purposes, including food, medicine and magico-religious use, has placed some species - especially endemic species - at risk of extinction. In this context, the present study aimed to identify the wild vertebrate species used in folk medicine in five communities in the region surrounding the Serra do Conduru State Park (PESC), Bahia, Brazil. Forty-five hunter-farmers were interviewed, citing 23 species, from which 17 raw materials are extracted for prevention and/or treatment of 19 illnesses. Mammals were the most cited taxon followed by birds and reptiles. Among the species mentioned, Cuniculus paca is the most used for zootherapy purposes, followed by Salvator merianae and Sphiggurus insidiosus. There was dissimilarity between the communities in relation to the diversity of species used for zootherapy. Ten categories of body systems were classified for which the therapeutic resources are recommended. Disorders related to the middle and inner ear were the most cited. Some of the species mentioned are endangered, such as Bradypus torquatus and Lachesis muta. This research demonstrated that zootherapy is a traditional practice embedded in these communities. Further studies are needed to broaden knowledge of other species that may have important cultural value for these families, as well as to evaluate the potential implications of the uncontrolled use of these species in traditional medicine in an ecological context, since the practice of zootherapy can excerpt pressure on critical animal populations and threaten biodiversity.

Resumo: Animais silvestres, domésticos e seus subprodutos são ingredientes importantes na preparação de medicamentos tradicionalmente utilizados na medicina popular, presentes em várias culturas humanas desde a antiguidade. No entanto, a diminuição do número de espécies nas regiões neotropicais, por meio da caça para diversas finalidades, como uso alimentar, medicinal e mágico-religioso tem colocado espécies em risco de extinção, especialmente as endêmicas. Nesse contexto, o presente estudo objetivou identificar as espécies de vertebrados silvestres utilizadas na medicina popular em cinco comunidades na região do entorno do Parque Estadual Serra do Conduru (PESC), Bahia, Brasil. Foram entrevistados 45 caçadores-agricultores que citaram 23 espécies os quais são extraídas 17 matérias-primas para prevenção e/ou tratamento de 19 enfermidades. Os mamíferos foi o táxon com maior número de citações, seguido pelas aves e répteis. Dentre as espécies citadas a Cuniculus paca é a mais utilizada para fins zooterápicos, seguido por Salvator merianae e Sphiggurus insidiosus. As comunidades apresentaram uma dissimilaridade em relação a diversidade de espécies de uso zooterápicos. Foram classificadas 10 categorias dos sistemas corporais para os quais os recursos terapêuticos são recomendados. Transtornos relacionados ao ouvido médio e interno foram os mais citados. Algumas espécies citadas encontram-se ameaçadas de extinção, como a Bradypus torquatus e Lachesis muta. A pesquisa mostrou que a zooterapia é uma prática tradicional inserida nas comunidades. Estudos adicionais são necessários para ampliar o conhecimento sobre demais espécies que possivelmente desempenham importante valor cultural às famílias, bem como avaliar em um contexto ecológico às implicações que pode acarretar com o uso descontrolado dessas espécies na medicina tradicional, uma vez que a prática da zooterapia pode causar pressão sobre populações animais críticas e ameaçar a biodiversidade.

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BACKGROUND: Animals from various taxonomic groups are commonly used in folk medicine, and their selection seems to be directly linked to their availability and accessibility. In the present study, we analyzed the use of animals as a source of folk medicines in a community in northeastern Brazil with access to aquatic and terrestrial animals. We hypothesize that the medicinal fauna is well represented by species of both habitat types. METHODS: For the collection of information, semi-structured questionnaires were applied to local residents. RESULTS: We recorded the use of 22 animals used as medicinal resources in the community, distributed among eight taxonomic categories, which are used to treat 38 types of diseases. Of the therapeutic animals, 14 species are terrestrial and 8 species can be considered aquatic occurring in marine or estuarine habitats. CONCLUSIONS: Our data confirm the tendency of human communities to use affordable medicinal animals in local ecosystems. We also found that medicinal use represents a strategy of optimizing the use of resources and is related to the economic, historical, social, cultural, and ecological contexts in which the community is inserted.

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In Brazil, although a large number of animals are used in traditional medicine (at least 354 species), information about their biological activities is scarce. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal potential of zootherapeutic by-products from animals used in Brazilian traditional medicine and discuss the ecological and cultural consequences of such practices. The species analyzed were: Tupinambis merianae (skin), Iguana iguana (skin and body fat), Crotalus durissus (skin and body fat), Boa constrictor (skin), Euphractus sexcinctus (body fat) and Coendou prehensilis (quills). Experiments were performed with standard clinical strains of Escherichia coli (EC-ATCC10536) and Staphylococcus aureus (SA-ATCC 25923). For the microbiological assay, the zootherapeutics were evaluated using serial microdilutions. The results indicate that none of the samples possess inhibitory activity against standard bacterial strains. The in vitro ineffectiveness of the analyzed products demonstrate a necessity for new pharmacological research that encompass a large number of species of medicinal animals as well as highlight the importance of zootherapy in the context of plans for animal conservation.

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Resumo Aborda questões éticas no uso de animais como zooterápicos, que, embora documentado há séculos para múltiplas culturas e resistente ao processo de desenvolvimento urbano e tecnológico, congrega uma pluralidade de agentes morais e vulneráveis, constituindo um dilema cuja solução consensual e justa demanda a intervenção de novas ferramentas, como a bioética ambiental. Analisando textos científicos, sistematiza os argumentos e valores intrínsecos às decisões de como e quando utilizar animais como recursos médicos. Pelo método bioético, reflete sobre soluções condicionadas à comunicação muldimensional entre os atores constituintes dos três pilares da sustentabilidade - ambiente, sociedade e economia - envolvidos nessa questão ética global, focando na conservação e na produção sustentável.

Abstract This paper addresses ethical questions concerning animal-assisted therapy (zootherapy). While it has been documented for centuries in several cultures and is resistant to urban and technological developments, it combines multiple moral and vulnerable agents, constituting a dilemma whose fair and consensual solution calls for new perspectives, like environmental bioethics. Through analyses of scientific texts, the arguments and values intrinsic to decisions about how and when to use animals as medical resources are systematized. Using bioethics as a method, reflections are offered about the potential solutions dependent on the multidimensional communication between the players from the three pillars of sustainability - environment, society, and economy - involved in this global ethical question, focusing on conservation and sustainable production.

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Insects and their products are included in the traditional pharmacopoeia of various ethnic groups worldwide. In the Brazilian semiarid region can be highlighted the use of the termite Nasutitermes corniger for the treatment of various diseases. This study evaluated the ethanol extract of N. corniger and its nest as an antimicrobial agent and as a modulator of bacterial resistance against multidrug strains. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the extract on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli by microdilution was determined, as well as MIC of antibiotics in the presence and absence of extract. Despite having no significant antimicrobial activity (MIC â©¾ 1000 µg mL(-1)), the extract showed additive activity to the antibiotic efficacy, significantly reducing its MIC. These results suggest that N. corniger and its nest are promising natural products for use in antimicrobial therapy.

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CONTEXT: The toad Rhinella jimi (Stevaux, 2002) (Bufonidae) is used in traditional medicine to treat a number of illnesses (inflammation, infections, and wounds) in humans as well as animals. OBJECTIVES: The present work examined the antimicrobial actions of the extracted oils from the body fat of R. jimi (ORJ) against fungi and standard and multi-resistant lines of bacteria, as well as their effects when combined with aminoglycosides. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The toads were collected in the municipality of Exu in Pernambuco State, Brazil, and their body fat oils extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus using hexane. A gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer was used to identify the fatty acids, based on their methyl esters. The antimicrobial activities of the oil were analyzed against standard and multi-resistant lines of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as against fungal lines of Candida albicans and Candida krusei using the broth micro-dilution method. RESULTS: The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of ORJ were 512 µg/mL for Candida krusei and ≥1024 µg/mL for the other microorganisms. When associated with amikacin, ORJ demonstrated an increase in its ability to inhibit E. coli growth (from 156.25 to 39.06 µg/mL), indicating synergistic interaction. In the same way, when allied with amikacin, gentamicin, and neomycin, the ORJ reduced the MICs meaningly, against P. aeruginosa. CONCLUSIONS: These data will enable searches to be made to obtain new products in combination with antibiotics, enhancing the efficacy of these drugs against drug-resistant microorganisms.

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CONTEXT: Animals are used for the treatment of diseases caused by inflammatory processes, although few studies evaluate their potential for these purposes. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the anti-inflammatory potential of zootherapeutic products derived from vertebrates used in Brazilian traditional medicine. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The species analyzed were Tupinambis merianae, Iguana iguana, Crotalus durissus, Boa constrictor, and Euphractus sexcinctus. The methods used in anti-inflammatory assays were ear edema (topical) and paw (systemic). RESULTS: With regard to topical anti-inflammatory activity, the fat from T. merianae, C. durissus, I. iguana, B. constrictor, and E. sexcinctus reduced inflammation, while for systemic anti-inflammatory activity, only the fat and the skin of C. durissus, the skin of I. iguana and the fat from B. constrictor reduced inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Studies should be conducted to evaluate the mechanisms of action for each product that demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity as well as against other inflammatory processes.

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Injuries caused by venomous animals reported by the agricultural workers from the municipality of Cuité, Curimataú region of Paraiba State, Northeast of Brazil, and the practices of folk medicine which they use to treat these cases were studied in this work from June to August 2010. The farmers studied aged from 11 to 90 years. The number of people who reported cases of injury by these animals in their families was high (89.3%). Scorpions, wasps, bees and snakes were the most cited and the extremities of the body (hands, feet, legs and head) were the most affected. The practice of folk medicine to treat these injuries includes various procedures ranging from ritualistic treatments, use of animals or parts of them, and some herbal preparations. The folk treatment was reported as effective by most of the workers injured (63.9%). Body parts of dead snakes are used in various zootherapic treatments. In the imaginary of the agricultural workers the venomous animals are considered hazardous (48.7%) or disgusting (11.3%), and several parts of such animals as the rattle, bee sting or snake leather are used as amulet. Several legends have also been reported about snakes, scorpions and bees. The need for educational activities that aim to clarify these workers about the dangers of such practices is urgent.

Acidentes por animais peçonhentos ocorridos com agricultores sindicalizados do município de Cuité, região do Curimataú paraibano, e práticas de medicina popular por eles utilizadas foram estudadas neste trabalho, através de entrevistas livres e questionários semiestruturados durante o período de junho a agosto de 2010. A idade dos agricultores pesquisados variou de 11 a 90 anos e a incidência de pessoas que sofreram algum acidente com esses animais chegou a 89,3%. Escorpiões, marimbondos, abelhas e serpentes foram os animais mais citados. As extremidades do corpo (mãos, pés, pernas e cabeça) foram as regiões mais atingidas. A prática da medicina popular para tratar desses acidentes inclui vários procedimentos que vão desde tratamentos ritualísticos, uso de animais ou partes dele, até preparos fitoterápicos. O tratamento caseiro é reconhecido como sendo eficaz pela maioria dos que sofreram acidentes (63,9%). Serpentes mortas têm várias partes do corpo arrancadas e usadas em tratamentos zooterápicos diversos. No imaginário dos agricultores, os animais peçonhentos são vistos como perigosos (48,7%) ou nojentos (11,3%), e diversas partes desses animais como chocalho, ferrão da abelha ou couro da cobra são usadas como amuletos de sorte. Inúmeras lendas também foram relatadas com cobras, escorpiões e abelhas. A necessidade de atividades educacionais visando esclarecer esses trabalhadores sobre os perigos dessas práticas é urgente.

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Boa constrictor is widely used in traditional communities in many different folk remedies and products derived from it are sold in public markets throughout northeastern Brazil and as its body fat has many different therapeutic indications as a folk remedy. The present work evaluates the antibacterial activity of the body fat from the snake Boa constrictor when employed either alone or in combination with antibiotics and discusses the ecological implications of the use of this traditional remedy. Oil (OBC) was extracted from body fat located in the ventral region of B. constrictor using hexane as a solvent. The antibacterial activity of OBC was tested against standard as well as multi-resistant lines, either alone and in combination with antibiotics. OBC did not demonstrate any relevant antibacterial activity against standard or multidrug-resistant bacterial strains. OBC showed synergistic activity when combined with the aminoglycoside antibiotics. Our results indicate that the body fat of Boa constrictor does not possess bactericidal activity, from the clinical point of view, but when combined with an antibiotic, the fat demonstrated a significant synergistic activity.

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Este artigo discute o uso de animais como recursos medicinais no Estado da Bahia, nordeste brasileiro. Os dados resultam de uma avaliação processual de desempenho acadêmico, uma vez que se tratou de um exercício requerido pelo professor da disciplina Etnobiologia (semestre 2007.2) aos estudantes do curso de Formação de Professores do Estado da Bahia da Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, quando lhes foi solicitado que fizessem um breve registro, em suas respectivas cidades, sobre o uso de animais medicinais. Participaram 41 estudantes, provenientes de 21 cidades do interior do estado. Foram registrados 95 animais (nomes comuns), dos quais dezessete são novos acréscimos à lista de animais medicinais anteriormente publicada. O registro da utilização medicinal de animais no Estado da Bahia fornece uma contribuição relevante ao fenômeno da zooterapia, abrindo espaço para debates sobre biologia da conservação, políticas de saúde pública, manejo sustentável dos recursos naturais, prospecção biológica e patente. Necessita-se desenvolver mais estudos etnozoológicos tanto para compreender a importância real da zooterapia para as comunidades tradicionais, quanto para desenvolver estratégias de manejo e uso sustentáveis das espécies animais, especialmente daquelas em risco de extinção.

This article deals with the use of animals as medicinal resources in Bahia state, Northeastern Brazil. The data come from a processional evaluation of academic performance, since it was an exercise requested by the professor of the discipline Ethnobiology (2007.2 semester) to the students of the course Bahia State Teachers' Undergraduation of Feira de Santana State University. They were asked to make a brief survey, in their respective cities, on the use of animals as medicines. Forty-one students, from 21 cities of the country of Bahia State, have participated with data. A total of 95 animals (common names) were recorded, from which 17 are new additions to the list of medicinal animal species already published. The recording of the use of animals as folk medicines in the state of Bahia provides a significant contribution to the phenomenon of zootherapy, because it opens a space to debate about conservation biology, health public policies, sustainable management of natural resources, bioprospection, and patent. It is necessary to carry out more ethnozoological studies both to comprehend the true importance of zootherapy to the traditional communities and to develop some strategies of sustainable management and use of animal species, especially for those under risk of extinction.

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Bacterial infectious agents present a risk to populations, as they are responsible for high morbidity and mortality. For combating these pathogens, our main line of defense is the use of antibiotics. However, indiscriminate use of these drugs develops resistant strains to these same drugs. The present study has tested the antibacterial and modifying antibiotic activity of natural products from Nasutitermes corniger (Termitidae) (Motschulsky), a termite used in folk medicine in Northeast Brazil, by the microdilution and checkerboard methods, respectively. In this study, the aqueous extract from the nest of N. corniger (ANCE) was prepared and tested with chlorpromazine (CPZ) for its antimicrobial activity, using the microdilution method. CPZ and ANCE were used independently and also in combination with aminoglycosides, against a strain of Escherichia coli resistant to these antibiotics, to determine the participation of efflux systems in resistance mechanisms. The fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index was calculated and evaluated for the occurrence of synergism, using the checkerboard method. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) values were >/= 2048 mug/mL for both strains of E. coli assayed, indicating low antibacterial activity. However, synergism was observed with kanamycin when the decoction was used, but when chlorpromazine was used, synergism was observed with kanamycin, amikacin, and neomycin. This synergism with CPZ indicated the involvement of an efflux system in the resistance to these aminoglycosides. Therefore, it was suggested that the natural products from N. corniger could be used as a source of zoo-derived natural products with kanamycin-modifying activity, resulting in a new approach against bacterial resistance to antibiotics.