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Francisella tularensis endocarditis is rare and difficult to diagnose, and only a few cases have been described. We report two new cases of endocarditis due to F. tularensis subsp. holarctica, with a favorable evolution after appropriate antibiotic therapy and valve replacement surgery, and review the 5 other cases reported in the literature. This rare infection may be suspected based on the local epidemiology and the patient's exposure factors. A regimen of ciprofloxacin and gentamicin, combined with surgical valve replacement if necessary, appears to be effective in treating F. tularensis endocarditis.
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Introduction: Tularemia, caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, poses health risks to humans and can spread through a variety of routes. It has also been classified as a Tier 1 Select agent by the CDC, highlighting its potential as a bioterrorism agent. Moreover, it is difficult to diagnose in a timely fashion, owing to the non-specific nature of tularemia infections. Rapid, sensitive, and accurate detection methods are required to reduce mortality rates. We aimed to develop antibodies directed against the outer membrane protein A of F. tularensis (FopA) for rapid and accurate diagnosis of tularemia. Methods: We used a baculovirus insect cell expression vector system to produce the FopA antigen and generate anti-FopA antibodies through immunization of BALB/c mice. We then employed hybridoma and phage display technologies to screen for antibodies that could recognize unique epitopes on FopA. Result: Two monoclonal antibodies, 6B12 and 3C1, identified through phage display screening specifically bound to recombinant FopA in a dose-dependent manner. The binding affinity of the anti-FopA 6B12 and 3C1 antibodies was observed to have an equilibrium dissociation constant of 1.76 × 10-10 M and 1.32 × 10-9 M, respectively. These antibodies were used to develop a sandwich ELISA system for the diagnosis of tularemia. This assay was found to be highly specific and sensitive, with detection limits ranging from 0.062 ng/mL in PBS to 0.064 ng/mL in skim milk matrices. Discussion: Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of a novel diagnostic approach for detecting F. tularensis based on targeting FopA, as opposed to existing tests that target the bacterial lipopolysaccharide.
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Anticuerpos Antibacterianos , Anticuerpos Monoclonales , Proteínas de la Membrana Bacteriana Externa , Francisella tularensis , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Proteínas Recombinantes , Tularemia , Tularemia/diagnóstico , Animales , Francisella tularensis/inmunología , Francisella tularensis/genética , Proteínas de la Membrana Bacteriana Externa/inmunología , Proteínas de la Membrana Bacteriana Externa/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes/inmunología , Proteínas Recombinantes/genética , Anticuerpos Monoclonales/inmunología , Ratones , Inmunoensayo/métodos , Sensibilidad y Especificidad , Femenino , Técnicas de Visualización de Superficie Celular , Epítopos/inmunología , Ensayo de Inmunoadsorción Enzimática/métodos , Humanos , Antígenos Bacterianos/inmunología , Antígenos Bacterianos/genética , Hibridomas , Baculoviridae/genéticaRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: A hunter with a history of oncology, flu-like symptoms and ring-shaped erythema was treated with doxycycline in an outpatient setting on suspicion of a tick-borne disease. After obtaining a positive Francisella tularensis serology, antibiotic treatment was continued for a total of 21 days, followed by freedom of symptoms and falling CRP, but without prompt serological follow-up. In contrast to the previously described tularemia cases in Switzerland, the article shows less pronounced local finding without palpable lymphadenopathy.
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Tularemia , Humanos , Masculino , Tularemia/diagnóstico , Tularemia/tratamiento farmacológico , Diagnóstico Diferencial , Antibacterianos/uso terapéutico , Doxiciclina/uso terapéutico , Eritema/etiología , Gripe Humana/diagnóstico , Gripe Humana/complicaciones , Francisella tularensis/aislamiento & purificación , Persona de Mediana Edad , SuizaRESUMEN
Leishmania and tularemia are infectious diseases that both can present with lymphadenopathy. Leishmania typically causes visceral or cutaneous forms, while tularemia can result in glandular tularemia characterized by lymphadenitis. We report a case of a patient presenting with localized cervical lymphadenopathy diagnosed with both leishmaniasis and tularemia. This case underscores the importance of considering both pathogenic agents in the differential diagnosis of localized lymphadenitis. Early treatment is crucial to prevent the dissemination of these infections.
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Tularemia is a widespread bacterial disease caused by Francisella tularensis. Iran is an endemic country for this zoonosis. In this report, we present a 2020 tularemia outbreak in a village in northwestern Iran involving 15 patients with the oropharyngeal form of the disease. This outbreak was probably linked to the consumption of contaminated drinking water.
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Brotes de Enfermedades , Agua Potable , Francisella tularensis , Tularemia , Tularemia/epidemiología , Tularemia/microbiología , Tularemia/transmisión , Humanos , Irán/epidemiología , Agua Potable/microbiología , Francisella tularensis/aislamiento & purificación , Francisella tularensis/genética , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Femenino , Adulto , Orofaringe/microbiología , Anciano , Microbiología del Agua , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Francisella tularensis is an intracellular gram-negative bacterium known as the causative agent of tularemia, which can be transmitted to humans by direct contact with wild animals or by tick bites. Although F. tularensis is highly pathogenic, its recent prevalence in Japan is underreported due to the small number of reported cases. To clarify the current situation of F. tularensis in wild animals, we conducted surveillance on various species of wild animals in Yamaguchi prefecture. In this study, we screened 809 samples collected from 90 Japanese black bears, 105 Japanese monkeys, 168 sika deer, 205 wild boars, and 84 bats. For seroprevalence analysis, we tested 177 serum samples from 75 black bears and 102 monkeys using the microagglutination test. The results showed that serums from five black bears exhibited slight agglutination. Western blot was performed as a confirmatory test on these five samples, but no positive signals were detected. Additionally, molecular surveillance was conducted using DNA extracted from 464 whole blood and 168 tissues, targeting the gene encoding 23 KDa hypothetical protein by real-time PCR and outer membrane protein A gene by conventional PCR. No positive samples of F. tularensis were detected by either real-time or conventional PCR. Although we did not detect any F. tularensis-positive samples through serological and molecular analyses, continuous surveillance studies are necessary since sporadic human cases have been reported in Japan.
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Background: Tularemia is a zoonotic disease (reservoir is usually rodents) caused by Francisella tularensis, especially seen in the northern hemisphere. Hunters are in the risk group for this disease. In this study, it was aimed to determine the seroprevalence of tularemia among hunters and determine the risk factors of tularemia in our country. Methods: The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) is divided into four regions (Nicosia, Kyrenia, Famagusta/Trikomo, and Morphou/Lefka) and 100 volunteer hunters randomly selected from these regions were included in our study. Tube agglutination test (TAT) and F. tularensis IgG and IgM (ELISA method) were applied in all sera. All hunters were filled with a pre-prepared questionnaire to determine risk factors for tularemia. Results: TAT positivity was found in 11%. While F. tularensis ELISA IgG positivity was 17%, IgM positivity was not found in any hunters. Hunters with positive F. tularensis ELISA IgG test (17%) were accepted as seropositive in terms of tularemia. There was no statistically significant difference between the mean age of IgG-positive and negative hunters (p= 0.915). Of the 86 hunters who kept at least one hunting dog in their garden, 15 (17.4%) were IgG-positive. There was no significant relationship between feeding hunting dogs and tularemia (p= 0.561). Conclusion: Our study showed that the seroprevalence of tularemia was high (17%) among hunters, who are considered a risk group, in our country. We think that more epidemiological research should be done on tularemia infection and it should not be overlooked in the clinic.
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Francisella tularensis is a Gram-negative facultative intracellular bacterial pathogen that is classified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as a Tier 1 Select Agent. F. tularensis infection causes the disease tularemia, also known as rabbit fever. Treatment of tularemia is limited to few effective antibiotics which are associated with high relapse rates, toxicity, and potential emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains. Consequently, new therapeutic options for tularemia are needed. Through screening a focused chemical library and subsequent structure-activity relationship studies, we have discovered a new and potent inhibitor of intracellular growth of Francisella tularensis, D8-03. Importantly, D8-03 effectively reduces bacterial burden in mice infected with F. tularensis. Preliminary mechanistic investigations suggest that D8-03 works through a potentially novel host-dependent mechanism and serves as a promising lead compound for further development.
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Antibacterianos , Francisella tularensis , Tularemia , Francisella tularensis/efectos de los fármacos , Francisella tularensis/crecimiento & desarrollo , Animales , Tularemia/tratamiento farmacológico , Tularemia/microbiología , Ratones , Antibacterianos/farmacología , Antibacterianos/química , Relación Estructura-Actividad , Humanos , Pruebas de Sensibilidad Microbiana , Descubrimiento de Drogas , Femenino , Modelos Animales de EnfermedadRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Ultrasound (US) has an important place in imaging ulceroglandular type patients with tularemia. This study is a case series addressing the imaging findings of US and US shear-wave elastography in ulceroglandular type tularemia. DESCRIPTION: Three patients, two women, and one man, were included in our case series. The patients were admitted to our hospital with neck swelling, pain, and a palpable mass. After the diagnosis of tularemia was made as a result of the examinations performed on the patients, they were evaluated again with US and US shear-wave elastography. DISCUSSION: Since there are many diagnoses including ulceroglandular tularemia in the differential diagnosis of swelling, pain, and palpable mass in the neck, the patient must undergo a thorough evaluation process. US shear-wave elastography can provide significant benefits in identification and treatment follow-up in order to understand the ulceroglandular mass formation observed in the neck in tularemia and the stiffness and morphology of the tissues in the lymph nodes where involvement is observed and to distinguish them from the surrounding tissue.
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Interest in causes of mortality of free-ranging, native North American lagomorphs has grown with the emergence of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2 (RHDV2). Over the years 2013-2022, the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study received 119 Sylvilagus spp. case submissions from the central and eastern United States, comprising 147 rabbits. Most (86%) of these submissions occurred after detecting RHDV2 in the United States in 2020. Laboratory data from these rabbits were retrospectively evaluated for major causes, contributors to mortality, and pathogen detections. Gross and histologic examination was performed for 112 rabbits. Common primary causes of death included trauma (n = 49), bacterial disease (n = 31), emaciation (n = 6), and parasitism (n = 6). Among the 32 rabbits with bacterial disease, 12 were diagnosed with tularemia and 7 with pasteurellosis. Rabbits with pasteurellosis had disseminated abscessation, septicemia, and/or polyserositis. Less commonly, cutaneous fibroma (n = 2), notoedric mange (n = 2), encephalitozoonosis (n = 2), neoplasia (round-cell sarcoma; n = 1), and congenital abnormalities (n = 1) were diagnosed. RHDV2 was not detected in 123 rabbits tested. Although RHDV2 has not been detected in wild lagomorphs in the eastern United States, detections in domestic rabbits from the region emphasize the need for continued surveillance. Furthermore, continued surveillance for Francisella tularensis informs public health risk. Overall, increased knowledge of Sylvilagus spp. health furthers our understanding of diseases affecting these important prey and game species.
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Background: The control and prevention of rodent-borne diseases are mainly based on our knowledge of ecology and the infectious status of their reservoir hosts. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of Francisella tularensis, Yersinia pestis, and arenavirus infections in small mammals and to assess the potential of disease occurrence in East Azerbaijan, northwest of Iran, in 2017 and 2018. Methods: Spleen and lung samples were obtained from all trapped small mammals. The real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) method was used to detect nucleic acid sequences of F. tularensis, Y. pestis, and arenaviruses. Serum samples were tested for antibodies indicating the host response to F. tularensis and Y. pestis infections using the standard tube agglutination test and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Results: A total of 205 rodents, four Eulipotyphla, and one carnivore were captured. The most common rodent species captured (123 of 205 rodents, 60%) belonged to the genus Meriones (mainly Persian jird, Meriones persicus). In total, 317 fleas were removed from trapped animals. Flea species belonged to Xenopsylla buxtoni, Xenopsylla nuttalli, Stenoponia tripectinata, Paraceras melis, Ctenophthalmus rettigi smiti, Rhadinopsylla bivirgis, Paradoxopsyllus grenieri, and Nosopsyllus iranus. Using the qPCR tests, five spleen samples from M. persicus were positive for F. tularensis. The qPCR tests were negative for the detection of Y. pestis and arenaviruses. Finally, all serum samples tested were negative for antibodies against Y. pestis and F. tularensis. Conclusions: F. tularensis was the only zoonotic agent detected in rodents captured in East Azerbaijan. However, the diversity of trapped rodents and fleas provides the potential for the spread of various rodent-borne viral and bacterial diseases in the studied areas.
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Infecciones por Arenaviridae , Francisella tularensis , Peste , Roedores , Tularemia , Yersinia pestis , Animales , Irán/epidemiología , Yersinia pestis/aislamiento & purificación , Yersinia pestis/genética , Tularemia/epidemiología , Tularemia/veterinaria , Peste/epidemiología , Peste/veterinaria , Francisella tularensis/aislamiento & purificación , Francisella tularensis/genética , Infecciones por Arenaviridae/epidemiología , Infecciones por Arenaviridae/veterinaria , Enfermedades de los Roedores/epidemiología , Enfermedades de los Roedores/virología , Enfermedades de los Roedores/microbiologíaRESUMEN
Passive surveillance of wildlife disease is a valuable tool for the identification of emerging and changing disease patterns. Free-ranging leporids play an important role in their ecosystem and in the culture and diet of Canadians; however, little is known about their health status and the zoonotic pathogens they may carry. We summarized major causes of mortality and morbidity, as well as incidental infections and lesions, of free-ranging leporids submitted to the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative (CWHC) between 1990 and 2019. We identified Canadian leporids as competent hosts for several zoonotic pathogens, most notably Francisella tularensis (20/569; 3.5%). Trauma was the most frequent cause of mortality or morbidity among leporids, accounting for 46.0% of cases submitted to the CWHC, followed by bacterial infections (13.7%) and emaciation (5.1%). Human-mediated mortalities, such as those involving machines (23.7%), were the most common trauma case type, with apparently healthy individuals overrepresented within this mortality group. Harvesters proved to be a valuable resource for the monitoring of diseased and infected animals, as more than half (69.6%) of the animals submitted by this group had an incidental infection or lesion. The results from this study provide a scientific understanding the cause of mortality in free-ranging leporids in Canada with relevance to public health, wildlife biologists, veterinarians, and potential future surveillance programs.
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Animales Salvajes , Animales , Canadá/epidemiología , Estudios Retrospectivos , Zoonosis , Femenino , MasculinoRESUMEN
Ticks are responsible for the vast majority of vector-borne illnesses in the United States. The number of reported tick-borne disease (TBD) cases has more than doubled in the past 20 years. The majority of TBD cases occur in warm weather months in individuals with recent outdoor activities in wooded areas. The risk of contracting a TBD is also highly dependent on geographic location. Between 24 and 48 hours of tick attachment is required for most disease transmission to occur. Only 50% to 70% of patients with a TBD will recall being bitten by a tick, and TBDs are often initially misdiagnosed as a viral illness. Most TBDs are easily treated when diagnosed early in their course.
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Ehrlichiosis , Enfermedades por Picaduras de Garrapatas , Garrapatas , Animales , Humanos , Estados Unidos/epidemiología , Ehrlichiosis/diagnóstico , Ehrlichiosis/terapia , Enfermedades por Picaduras de Garrapatas/diagnóstico , Enfermedades por Picaduras de Garrapatas/epidemiología , Enfermedades por Picaduras de Garrapatas/terapiaRESUMEN
Introduction: For a majority of tularemia patients, serology is the basis for the diagnosis. The aim of this study was to perform an analysis of the samples analyzed at a Swedish reference laboratory for the presence of Francisella tularensis-specific antibody levels in sera from individuals with suspected tularemia. Annual and monthly variations of the total number of samples and proportions of positive samples were analyzed, as well as the influence of age and gender. Methods: We performed a retrospective analysis of the presence of F. tularensis-specific antibodies in serological samples from patients with suspected tularemia analyzed during the period 2010 - 2022 at the University Hospital of Umeå in Sweden, a national reference laboratory, by use of various statistical methods. In total, some 15,100 serum samples had been analyzed for the presence of IgG and IgM antibodies by ELISA during the 13-year period. Results: Overall, there were higher number of samples with IgG positive or borderline titers, 2,522 and 921, respectively, than with IgM positive or borderline titers, 1,802 and 409, respectively. Repeated samples were obtained from some 1,930 individuals and approximately a third of the cases, which were initially seronegative, had seroconverted when resampled. Peak number of monthly samples were recorded in August and September, > 3,000. Annual numbers varied greatly and peak numbers were observed in 2015 and 2019, 1,832 and 2,250, respectively, whereas some other years the numbers were 700 - 800. There was also much variation in the annual and monthly percentages of positive samples and they varied between less than 10% to greater than 20%. The highest percentages of positive samples were recorded in September and October. IgG and IgM titers declined with age and these differences were highly significant for IgG titers, with decreasing average titers for each 20-year interval. Discussion: Collectively, the data demonstrate the marked annual and seasonal variations in tularemia sampling occurring in Sweden. Also, the proportion of positive samples increased during months and years with peak number of samples. Another notable finding was that average antibody titers decreased with increased age.
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Francisella tularensis , Tularemia , Humanos , Tularemia/diagnóstico , Tularemia/epidemiología , Suecia/epidemiología , Estudios Retrospectivos , Anticuerpos Antibacterianos , Inmunoglobulina M , Inmunoglobulina GRESUMEN
Background: Tularemia is one of the most prevalent zoonoses across the world. Patients in Turkiye mostly contract the oropharyngeal form, acquired through drinking, or contact with microorganism-contaminated water. Methods: Patients with oropharyngeal tularemia aged under 18 years and diagnosed between January 01, 2017, and December 31, 2020, were evaluated retrospectively. Tularemia was diagnosed in patients with compatible histories, symptoms, clinical presentations, and laboratory test results. Results: The mean age of 38 children was 12.1 ± 3.4 years, and the female/male ratio was 0.58 (14/24). The mean duration of symptoms on admission was 33.8 ± 26.2 days. All children had enlarged lymph nodes. Malaise, fever, and loss of appetite were other frequent symptoms. Patients were treated with antibiotics for a mean of 26.2 ± 18.8 days. Gentamycin was the most frequently used antibiotic (either alone or in combination) (n = 29, 76.3%). Twenty-six (68.4%) patients underwent surgical procedures in addition to antibiotherapy. Five (13.2%) required secondary total excision. Patients with higher leukocyte counts at admission received a combination of antibiotherapy plus surgery, rather than antibiotics alone. No relapses, reretreatment requirement, or mortality were observed after 12 months of follow-up. Conclusions: Oropharyngeal tularemia in children can require longer courses of antibiotic treatment with more than one drug and more frequent surgery than previously suggested in the literature, especially if the patients are admitted late to the hospital, symptom duration is prolonged, and appropriate treatment is initiated late. Higher leukocyte counts on admission may be prognostic for longer antibiotic treatment course and suppurative complications that require surgery. Raising awareness among patients and physicians is essential.
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Antibacterianos , Tularemia , Humanos , Tularemia/tratamiento farmacológico , Tularemia/epidemiología , Tularemia/diagnóstico , Femenino , Masculino , Niño , Adolescente , Antibacterianos/uso terapéutico , Estudios Retrospectivos , Preescolar , Orofaringe/microbiología , Turquía/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
A 9-y-old captive male Pallas' cat (Otocolobus manul) had a 1-mo history of worsening lameness and was euthanized. The animal was submitted to the North Dakota State University-Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory for autopsy with differential diagnoses of suspected degenerative joint disease or neoplasia. Autopsy revealed icteric tissues and pinpoint foci in the liver, spleen, and all lung lobes. PCR testing was positive for Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia. Additional cases of tularemia were later identified in wild eastern cottontail rabbits found dead at the same urban zoo. Tularemia has been reported in captive non-human primates and rodent populations with one case linked to wild lagomorph exposure, which was likely the route of exposure in our Pallas' cat case. Tularemia is an occupational risk for zoo staff and laboratorians. Pest management and disease surveillance of wild lagomorph populations in zoos are important preventive measures.
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The wide distribution of tularemia in the territory of Kazakhstan is associated with landscape and geographical characteristics. This is explained by a combination of natural factors: the presence of certain types of rodents-reservoirs and sources, ectoparasites-carriers of the causative agent of tularemia. The study of the current spatial and temporal characterization of tularemia in Kazakhstan from 2000 to 2020 will determine the epidemiological status of tularemia and improve the monitoring system in Kazakhstan. In this work we demonstrated the results of a retrospective survey of natural foci of tularemia: analysis of vector, small mammal and human data. The spatial and temporal characteristics of tularemia from 2000 to 2020 in the territory of Kazakhstan were studied in comparison with historical data, including the description of tularemia outbreaks, the clinical picture, and the source of infection, transmission factors, and geographical coordinates of outbreak registration. Sampling was carried out by trapping rodents on snap traps and collecting ticks by rodent combing and by "flagging" methods. For the last 20 years, 85 human cases of tularemia have been reported. During the period from 2000 to 2020, more than 600 strains of F. tularensis were isolated from field rodents and ticks in the natural foci of tularemia. MLVA typing of F. tularensis strains isolated from natural foci of tularemia in Kazakhstan over the past 20 years. The results of retrospective monitoring indicate that currently active foci of tularemia include the Aktobe, West Kazakhstan, Almaty, East Kazakhstan, and Pavlodar regions. Low-activity natural foci are located in the territory of the Akmola, Karaganda, North Kazakhstan, Kostanay, Atyrau, Zhambyl, and Kyzylorda regions. There are no active natural foci of tularemia in the Mangystau and Turkestan regions. The widespread occurrence of tularemia in the country is associated with landscape and geographical features that contribute to the circulation of the pathogen in the natural focus. An analysis of natural foci of tularemia showed that it is necessary to continue monitoring studies of carriers and vectors for the presence of the causative agent of the F. tularensis, in order to prevent mass cases of human disease.
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Tularemia is a vector-borne disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Francisella tularensis. Known hosts and vectors in Europe are hare and ticks. F. tularensis is transmitted from ticks and animals, but also from the hydrotelluric environment and the consumption of contaminated water or food. A changing climate expands the range in which ticks can live and consequently might contribute to increasing case numbers of tularemia. Two subspecies of F. tularensis are human pathogenic. Francisella tularensis tularensis (Ftt) is endemic in North America, while Francisella tularensis holarctica (Fth) is the only subspecies causing tularemia in Europe. Ft is classified as a category A bioterrorism agent due to its low infectious dose, multiple modes of transmission, high infectivity and potential for airborne transmission and has become a global public health concern. In line with the European survey and previous phylogenetic studies, Switzerland shows the co-distribution of B.6 and B.12 strains with different geographical distribution and prevalence within the country. To establish itself in different host environments of ticks and mammals, F. tularensis presumably undergoes substantial changes on the transcriptomics and proteomic level. Here we investigate the transcriptomic and proteomic differences of five strains of Fth upon infection of rabbit macrophages and tick cells.
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Francisella tularensis , Francisella , Proteogenómica , Garrapatas , Tularemia , Animales , Humanos , Conejos , Tularemia/microbiología , Filogenia , Proteómica , Genotipo , MamíferosRESUMEN
In the last 10 years, an increase in tularemia cases has been observed in both humans and animals in Switzerland. In these, infection with Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of the zoonotic disease tularemia, can occur through arthropod vectors or contact to infected animals or exposure to contaminated environmental sources. Currently, we are only able to postulate potential aetiologies: (i) behavioral changes of humans with more exposure to endemic habitats of infected arthropod vectors; (ii) an increased rate of tularemia infected ticks; (iii) increasing number and geographical regions of tick biotopes; (iv) increasing and/or more diverse reservoir populations; (v) increasing presence of bacteria in the environment; (vi) raised awareness and increased testing among physicians; (vii) improved laboratory techniques including molecular testing. To approach these questions, a one-health strategy is necessary. A functioning collaboration between public health, human medicine, and diagnostic and veterinary units for the control of tularemia must be established. Furthermore, the public should be included within citizen-supported-science-projects.
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Francisella tularensis , Salud Única , Tularemia , Tularemia/epidemiología , Tularemia/transmisión , Tularemia/diagnóstico , Suiza/epidemiología , Humanos , Animales , Zoonosis/transmisión , Zoonosis/epidemiología , Zoonosis/microbiología , Garrapatas/microbiología , Vectores Artrópodos/microbiologíaRESUMEN
Tularemia is caused by subspecies of Francisella tularensis and can manifest in a variety of disease states, with the pneumonic presentation resulting in the greatest mortality. Despite decades of research, there are no approved vaccines against F. tularensis in the United States. Traditional vaccination strategies, such as live-attenuated or subunit vaccines, are not favorable due to inadequate protection or safety concerns. Because of this, novel vaccination strategies are needed to combat tularemia. Here we discuss the current state of and challenges to the tularemia vaccine field and suggest novel vaccine approaches going forward that might be better suited for protecting against F. tularensis infection.