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BACKGROUND: An ethnozoological study of medicinal animals in the Kucha district, Gamo zone, Southern Ethiopia, was conducted to investigate and document the use of traditional medicinal animals and the associated indigenous knowledge. Tribal people still make abundant use of animals and their parts to manage diseases in humans and even livestock. METHOD: A cross sectional study design and purposively sampling techniques were used. Data were collected from 132 respondents based on semi structured questionnaires. Focus group discussions (FGD) and Key informant interviews (KII) were conducted; Fidelity level (FL), Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and Informants' consensus factor (ICF) were used to analyze species preference and importance. RESULTS: A total of 24 medicinal animals were identified with 13 species (54.2%) being mammals of which 5 species (20.8%) dominated. They were followed by arthropods, reptiles and fishes. Seven out of the total were domestic species (29%) and 17 (70%) were wild animals. The majority of these animals, i.e. 22 (91.7%), were used to treat human ailments; whereas 2 (8.3%) were used to treat livestock ailments. The ICF values varied from 0.8 to 1.The highest FL value (98%) was linked to the cow (cattle), the lowest (1.5%) to the scorpion. The RFC value (1.0) was highest for the cow and lowest (0.02) for the scorpion. Honey, milk, and butter were the most commonly used therapeutic animal products, but regarding direct uses, fresh/raw meat dominated. Out of ten ailment categories, headaches had the lowest ICF value (0.8). All others scored at least 0.9. CONCLUSIONS: In rural areas, sick people often do not only have limited access to modern medical facilities, they actually prefer traditional treatments considering them to be more reliable and effective. It is therefore important to focus on documenting, conserving, and safeguarding the indigenous knowledge so that strategies to manage the traditional wisdom can be implemented in the future. To achieve these goals, it is important to make sure that medicinal animal species are available in sufficient numbers and neither threatened by habitat changes or overexploitation.

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There is a growing shift from the use of conventional pharmaceutical oral care products to the use of herbal extracts and traditional remedies in dental caries prevention. This is attributed to the potential environmental and health implications of contemporary oral products. This comprehensive review aims at the analysis of plant-derived compounds as preventive modalities in dental caries research. It focuses on data collected from 2019 until recently, trying to emphasize current trends in this topic. The research findings suggest that several plant-derived compounds, either aqueous or ethanolic, exhibit notable antibacterial effects against Streptococcus mutans and other bacteria related to dental caries, with some extracts demonstrating an efficacy comparable to that of chlorhexidine. Furthermore, in vivo studies using plant-derived compounds incorporated in food derivatives, such as lollipops, have shown promising results by significantly reducing Streptococcus mutans in high-risk caries children. In vitro studies on plant-derived compounds have revealed bactericidal and bacteriostatic activity against S. mutans, suggesting their potential use as dental caries preventive agents. Medicinal plants, plant-derived phytochemicals, essential oils, and other food compounds have exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens, either by their anti-adhesion activity, the inhibition of extracellular microbial enzymes, or their direct action on microbial species and acid production. However, further research is needed to assess their antimicrobial activity and to evaluate the cytotoxicity and safety profiles of these plant-derived compounds before their widespread clinical use can be recommended.

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Early intervention is imperative for potentially fatal dermatologic diseases such as pemphigus vulgaris. In rural Nepal, limited public awareness, home remedies, and delays in healthcare access lead to poor outcomes. Although biopsy confirms the diagnosis, experienced dermatologists can make an accurate clinical diagnosis when characteristic skin lesions are present.

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Patients with diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) are prone to major complications including amputations. Traditional remedies (TR) have been used to treat DFU around the world. This study aims to identify the prevalence of TR among patients with DFU in our local cohort and its effect on DFU. 1408 patients were included in the analysis. Data were collected retrospectively from patients' medical records. DFU characteristics include grading ulcers using the Wagner scale (WG) and infections (cellulitis and osteomyelitis). Ulcer management (UM) includes medical treatment, self-medical treatment, traditional treatment, and medical-traditional treatment. The mean age of the cohort was 60 years (SD = 12.4). The mean duration of diabetes was 18.6 years (SD = 9.3) and the mean duration of open wounds was 206.9 days (SD = 545.6). The majority were males (71%) and had type 2 diabetes (96%, SD = .204). Forty-three percent of patients were treated with TR (29% were self-prescribed and 14% prescribed by a physician) while 48% had medical treatment and 10% were self-treated using medical treatment. More than two-thirds of the cohort had cellulitis and/or osteomyelitis at the time of presentation. The use of traditional treatment was significantly associated with higher WG (WG 4 OR = 1.936, 95% CI: 1.338-2.800; WG 5 OR = 2.937, 95% CI:1.614-5.346; P < 0.05). Moreover, osteomyelitis was associated with medical-traditional treatment (OR = 1.608, 95% CI: 1.006-2.572; P < 0.05) and increased wound depth (WG 3 OR = 1.969, 95% CI: 1.193-3.250; WG 4 OR = 1.874, 95% CI: 1.115-3.15; P < 0.05). There is high use of TR for the treatment of DFU in our cohort. High Wagner-grade of foot ulcers and the presence of osteomyelitis were highly associated with DFU. This study showed for the first time the use of traditional potions by medical physicians. Both physicians and patients need to be made aware of the detrimental effects of using traditional methods on DFU.

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Aim: This qualitative study investigates the impact of cultural practices on children's health in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) by examining the use of traditional remedies and home treatments by mothers. Methods: Twenty-five participants, all mothers who had employed traditional treatments or home remedies for their children during periods of illness, were included in the study. The participants represented a diverse range of educational backgrounds, from school diploma holders to university degree graduates, with ages spanning from 20 to 50 years. Hailing from different Arabic countries and cultural subgroups, the majority of participating mothers were from the UAE. Results: Through in-depth interviews, three major themes emerged from the participants' experiences. Firstly, a strong connection between culture, religion, and healthcare practices was evident. Many mothers opted for cultural remedies as their first line of defense against illnesses due to the practices' strong foundations in their cultural heritage. Herbal remedies, Quranic healing, and other traditional methods were perceived to be both effective and spiritually comforting, reinforcing participants' sense of cultural identity. Secondly, participants highlighted unintended consequences of relying solely on traditional treatments. Some instances were reported where the use of ineffective remedies resulted in delays in seeking appropriate medical care for their children, potentially compromising their health. Additionally, certain misconceptions regarding the safety and efficacy of traditional remedies were identified, emphasizing the need for evidence-based healthcare education. Conclusion: This qualitative study sheds light on the intricate interplay between culture, traditional remedies, and children's health in the UAE. The incorporation of diverse participants from various Arabic countries and cultural subgroups enriches the study's applicability to broader Arabic cultures. By recognizing the significance of cultural healthcare practices and striking a balance with evidence-based care, healthcare providers can create a more inclusive and effective healthcare environment for children in the UAE. Future research should explore diverse samples and develop targeted interventions to further advance cultural awareness and understanding in healthcare practices.

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BACKGROUND: The genus Cistus L. (Cistaceae) includes several medicinal plants growing wild in the Moroccan area. Acne vulgaris (AV) is a chronic skin disorder treated with topical and systemic therapies that often lead to several side effects in addition to the development of antimicrobial resistance. Our study aimed to investigate the bioactivity of extracts of two Moroccan Cistus species, Cistus laurifolius L. and Cistus salviifolius L., in view of their use as potential coadjuvants in the treatment of mild acne vulgaris. METHODS: Targeted phytochemical profiles obtained by HPLC-DAD and HPLC-ESI/MS analyses and biological activities ascertained by several antioxidants in vitro chemical and cell-based assays of the leaf extracts. Moreover, antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and Candida albicans was evaluated. RESULTS: Analyses revealed the presence of several polyphenols in the studied extracts, mainly flavonoids and tannins. Cistus laurifolius L. and Cistus salviifolius L. possessed good biological properties and all extracts showed antibacterial activity, particularly against Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, and Propionibacterium acnes, identified as the main acne-causing bacteria. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that examined extracts are promising agents worthy of further studies to develop coadjuvants/natural remedies for mild acne treatment.

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BACKGROUND: Seeking traditional remedies following snakebites leads to avoidable deaths in rural settings in developing countries. METHODS: In this case series study, we identified and recruited 169 snakebite survivors in Baringo county, a hard-to-reach region in northwestern Kenya, who experienced snakebites from 2010 to 2020 using a snowballing technique. We explored associations between traditional and hospital care in managing snakebites and other characteristics. χ2 tests assessed these categorical differences. RESULTS: Fifty-four (33%) of the survivors used traditional remedies to manage snakebites. The majority (56%) were men and aged >18 y (72%); 59% had low education levels and income. They sourced water from rivers or lakes (93%) and used charcoal as an energy source (74%). These survivors (>67%) resided in households practicing free-range and stall-feeding animal husbandry systems and in houses with thatch roofing or an earthen floor structure. Also, >62% reported muscle tremors, fever and chills, while 80% visited health facilities for further treatment. CONCLUSION: Community sensitization covering the risks of non-effective remedies and escalation of training to traditional healers could improve the speed of referrals in hard-to-reach snakebite hotspots. Medical anthropology studies could explore the enablers of continued use of traditional remedies in snakebite management in rural communities.

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CONTEXT: Haemorrhoids are one of the most common gastrointestinal disorders in humans. In Tanzania, particularly in the Tabora region, medicinal plants (MPs) are used by traditional healers (THs) to treat haemorrhoids, but no study has explicitly attempted to compile these treatments. OBJECTIVE: This study documents MPs used by THs of the Tabora region in Tanzania to treat haemorrhoids. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A semi-structured questionnaire was used to gather ethnobotanical data from 44 THs on MPs used to treat haemorrhoids, parts used, preparation methods and administration routes. The collected ethnobotanical data were analysed by computing percentage frequencies and relative frequency citations. RESULTS: Twenty-six MPs belonging to 19 families and 25 genera, used to manage haemorrhoids, were documented. Fabaceae was the dominant family (four species), whereas shrubs constituted a high proportion (38.46%) of the MPs, and the root was the most (30.3%) utilized plant part. Decoction (38.5%) and topical application (53.8%) were the most preferred preparation and administration techniques. Most MP materials (76.9%) were sourced from the wild. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Asphodelaceae) (68%), followed by Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae) (66%) and Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) (66%) were the most utilized MPs. Among the recorded MPs, 12 are reported for the first time for the treatment of haemorrhoids. The recorded MPs are believed to possess anti-inflammatory properties that aid in managing inflammation associated with bowel diseases, including haemorrhoids. CONCLUSIONS: This study has documented valuable MPs used to manage haemorrhoids and provides a basis for further studies to discover efficient and affordable anti-haemorrhoid drugs.

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The source of emerging diseases and antimicrobial resistance is of increasing interest to epidemiologists. This paper looks at village chickens as such a source. In addition, infectious diseases constitute a major challenge to the growth and profitability of the rural poultry sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. A serological survey was conducted to estimate the apparent seroprevalence of selected chicken diseases in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa alongside a sociological survey of poultry farmers and the remedies most commonly used to prevent diseases in their flocks. Sera collected from village chickens (n = 1007) in the province were screened for specific antibodies against Newcastle disease (ND), avian influenza (AI), avian infectious bronchitis (IB) and Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG). The overall seroprevalence of ND, AI, IB and MG in the province was found to be 69.2 % (95 % CI 51.9-86.5%); 1.8 % (95 % CI 0.2-3.4%); 78.5 % (95 % CI 74.9-82%) and 55.8 % (95 % CI 41.3-70.3%) respectively with clustering found at the District level. Cross hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests indicated that the chickens were exposed to the ND vaccine. AI ELISA-positive samples were tested using HIs against the H5, H6 and H7-subtypes, but only H6-specific antibodies were detected. Avian influenza strains shared the common ancestor responsible for the 2002 chicken outbreak in KwaZulu-Natal Province. The majority of chicken farmers were females and pensioners (69 % and 66.1 % respectively) and had a primary school education (47.1 %). Traditional remedies were commonly used by farmers (47.15 %) and among the remedies, Aloe plant (Aloe ferox Mill.) or ikhala (Xhosa) was the most commonly used product (28.23 %) for preventing and reducing mortalities among village chickens. The findings stress the importance of village chickens as a substitute for social welfare and highlight the exposure of village chickens to important chicken pathogens. The economic impact of these pathogens on the development of this sub-sector needs further investigation. Village chickens are a potential source of virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) because of the lack of vaccination and biosecurity. They may serve as amplification hosts which increases the probability that virulent NDV could spill over into commercial poultry flocks due to large amounts of circulating virus. The zoonotic threat of circulating H6N2 viruses raise concern due to their mutation and reassortment among chickens and a potential movement of infected birds within the province. Finally, the use of antibiotics by untrained chicken farmers constitute another major concern as it could serve as a source of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

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OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess the level of awareness and knowledge of first aid for burns among healthcare workers in Saudi Arabia. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study between September 2 and December 5, 2019, via a self-administered online questionnaire among healthcare workers at a university hospital. The questionnaire comprised 24 questions divided into two sections pertaining to demographics and first aid for burns. This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee. RESULTS: We included 1,438 respondents in this study. Females comprised 68.2% (982) of the respondents. A total of 513 respondents (35.7%) were medical students. The mean burn knowledge score of all respondents was 8.07 ± 2.03 out of 13. Interestingly, 940 individuals (65.4%) used traditional medications on the burn area. Knowledge regarding antibiotic use in burn injuries was poor-1,199 (82.3%) study participants agreed that antibiotics are beneficial in the case of burns, which is a wrong act. The mean knowledge score was significantly different across groups of different ages, sexes, nationalities, marital statuses, and job positions (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The level of awareness of first aid for burn patients among healthcare workers was insufficient, and the unnecessary use of traditional medicines and antibiotics in burn patients being high. Moreover, this study confirmed the need for an effective educational program among healthcare workers.

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OBJECTIVE: To ascertain knowledge of first aid among parents of children suffering from burns. METHODS: The cross-sectional study was conducted at Mayo Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan, from July 2017 to January 2018, and comprised parents of patients in the paediatric burns unit. Questionnaires were filled by the duty doctor after interviewing parents, and data was collected regarding first aid, application of traditional remedies and demographic details. Optimal knowledge was defined as parent's knowledge of application of tap water on burns as first aid. SPSS 20 was used for data analysis . RESULTS: There were parents of 310 patients who had a mean total body surface area of burns of 25.11}13.80%. All (100%) accidents had occurred at home. All (100%) parents had removed their children from heat and electric source immediately after the accident, while 282(91%) stripped their children of their clothes. Only 41(13.2%) parents irrigated the burn area with tap water and 93(30%) applied traditional remedies. Further, 21(6.8%) parents had covered the burnt area with sterile dressing, while 25(8.1%) had covered the child to avoid hypothermia. One (0.3 2%) parent had attended a first aid course, while 13(4.2%) had knowledge of first aid because of previous history of a child having suffered from burns. Optimal knowledge wasstatistically associated with previous knowledge of first aid (p=0.0001), level of education of the parent (p=0.003) and monthly income (p=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The knowledge of first aid among parents was found to be inadequate and there was an urgent need to introduce campaigns focussing on prevention and first aid to manage burns, especially among illiterate and poor classes.

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Inflammation is a biological function which triggered after the mechanical tissue disruption or from the responses by the incidence of physical, chemical or biological negotiator in body. These responses are essential act provided by the immune system during infection and tissue injury to maintain normal tissue homeostasis. Inflammation is a quite complicated process at molecular level with the involvement of several proinflammatory expressions. Several health problems are associated with prolonged inflammation, which effects nearly all major to minor diseases. The molecular and epidemiological studies jagged that the inflammation is closely associated with several disorders with their specific targets. It would be great achievement for human health around the world to overcome on inflammation. Mostly used anti-inflammatory drugs are at high risk of side effects and also expensive. Hence, the plant-based formulations gained a wide acceptance by the public and medical experts to treat it. Due to extensive dispersal, chemical diversity and systematically established biological potentials of natural products have induced renewed awareness as a gifted source for medications. However, today's urgent need to search for cheaper, more potent and safe anti-inflammatory medications to overcome on current situation. The goal of this review to compile an update on inflammation, associated diseases, molecular targets, inflammatory mediators and role of natural products. The entire text concise the involvement of various cytokines in pathogenesis of various human disorders. This assignment discussed about 321 natural products with their promising anti-inflammatory potential discovered during January 2009 to December 2018 with 262 citations.

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AIM: This study explored self-management practices in relation to traditional methods for managing illness in newborns and infants and the implications of these practices on infant health. BACKGROUND: Self-medication with folk remedies is believed to have short- and long-term impacts on well-being. Little is known about how mothers in Arab societies used their traditional beliefs and practices in self-managing their newborns' and infants' health. METHODS: Data were collected from five focus groups using open-ended questions with 37 mothers. Participants were selected using snowball sampling and were recruited from four different cities in Jordan between June 2016 and August 2016. ETHICAL APPROVAL: All identifying information regarding the study participants has been omitted, and this study was approved by the Academic Research Committee at the University of Jordan. FINDINGS: Mothers were more willing to try herbal remedies, traditional massage and certain foods to self-manage their infants' health. Folk remedies were not restricted to traditions handed down through generations, but included a representation of newly emerged trends towards 'safety' or 'nature'. CONCLUSIONS: While the use of folk remedies have been handed down generations as customs, today, virtual support groups and social media provide modern resources for folk remedies' promotion in care and self-management. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING AND HEALTH POLICY: Nursing and health policymakers can use our findings for planning and developing strategies and health policies that increase public awareness about adverse health effects associated with herbal remedies. Such strategies are likely to be facilitated through partnerships between nursing and midwifery education institutions, antenatal clinics and social media in the region.

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BACKGROUND: Limited qualitative research has been performed in India to investigate views and behaviours of pregnant women regarding malaria despite the threat of malaria-related adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. To address this gap, a comprehensive study on malaria prevention and treatment attitudes, knowledge and behaviour among pregnant women in India was conducted. METHODS: Pregnant women and healthcare workers (HCWs), encompassing clinic-based providers, traditional birth attendants, and auxiliary nurse-midwives were enrolled for in-depth interviews (IDIs) at 7 hospital sites and nearby communities in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States. Questions addressed health concerns and attitudes, knowledge and practices regarding malaria prevention and treatment; probing covered modern and traditional approaches. Data were analyzed using a thematic approach. RESULTS: A total of 83 pregnant women and 119 HCWs participated in 202 IDIs, 90 in Jharkhand and 112 in Chhattisgarh. A majority of Jharkhand respondents, but only one-fourth in Chhattisgarh, named malaria among top health issues for pregnant women. Just over half of pregnant women were willing to try new prevention methods (especially insecticide-treated bed nets), although cost-related barriers to such methods were stressed. Most respondents voiced concerns about malaria treatment during pregnancy, mainly citing potential harm to the baby. Most knew that mosquitoes transmitted malaria, but a substantial minority, including among HCWs, described incorrect transmission modes. Most knew a proven prevention method (usually bed nets or coils); a few knew other methods. A minority of pregnant women, but most HCWs, knew about malaria treatment, although some HCWs described unproven treatments. Most respondents described use of modern prevention methods in their communities, typically bed nets, although probing revealed irregular use. Half (especially in Jharkhand and particularly HCWs) described use of traditional prevention approaches such as burning leaves and rubbing oils on the body; traditional remedies for malaria treatment were common, and varied by site and population. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding of malaria varied as a concern for pregnant women, continued use of unproven malaria prevention and treatment strategies was evident in this population in India. These results highlight the need to educate both pregnant women and HCWs about effective malaria methods to protect pregnant women and their babies from malaria.

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Syndromic surveillance is a well described tool used in developed countries for alerting authorities to livestock disease incursions. However, little work has been done to evaluate whether this could be a viable tool in countries where disease reporting infrastructure and resources is poor. Consequently, a syndrome-based questionnaire study in Eastern Zambia was designed to gather data on previous encounters farmers had with poultry diseases, as well as control measures they use to mitigate them. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to analyse the data. Farmers reported an overall annual disease incidence in rural poultry for eastern Zambia of 31% (90% CI 29-32%). Occurrence of poultry disease in the last 12 months was associated with use of middlemen to purchase poultry products (p = 0.05, OR = 7.87), poultry products sold or given away from the farm (p = 0.01, OR = 1.92), farmers experiencing a period with more trade of poultry and its products (p = 0.04, OR = 1.70), presence of wild birds near the farm or village (p = 0.00, OR = 2.47) and poultry diseases being reported from neighbouring farms or villages (p = 0.00, OR = 3.12). The study also tentatively identified three poultry diseases (Newcastle Disease, Gumboro Disease and Fowl Pox) from the thirty-four disease syndromes provided by farmers. Farmers reported an incidence of 27% for Newcastle Disease in 2014. When compared with the state veterinary services data which reported Newcastle Disease incidence at 9% in 2014, it seems syndromic data obtained from farmers may be more sensitive in identifying disease incursion. Thirty-six remedies and strategies farmers use to treat and control these diseases were revealed. The main control strategy for identified diseases was vaccination and the main treatment was unspecified herbs, which warrants further investigation and presents an opportunity for further research in ethno-veterinary medicine. More still, this study identified chilli, Aloe Vera, garlic onion, moringa, and ash as traditional remedies that are commonly being used in Eastern Zambia, and which are also used to treat poultry diseases in Zimbabwe and Botswana. Only fourteen remedies described are conventionally accepted by veterinarians as remedies and disease control measures for poultry diseases. This study shows that syndromic data obtained from farmers is a useful disease reporting tool and could be used as an effective means of alerting authorities to disease incursion. In addition, it shows that these data may give a more accurate estimate of incidence for certain diseases than current surveillance methods and could be useful in assessing significant risk factors associated with disease occurrence.

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Albizia myriophylla Benth. is a medicinal herb which is used as a traditional remedy for various ailments including diabetes in Thailand. In our continued investigation of the biological activity of A. myriophylla, the ethanol extract, fractions and the isolated compounds from the wood of this plant were evaluated for in vitro α-glucosidase inhibition using spectrophotometric method. The plant ethanol extract and its different fractions possessed α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in a concentration-dependent manner. Dichloromethane fraction of the wood ethanol extract exhibited the highest percent inhibition against α-glucosidase (69.30%) among all fractions. Subsequent α-glucosidase inhibition assay proved that indenoic acid (1), 8-methoxy-7, 3',4'-trihydroxyflavone (2) and 3,4,7,3'-tetrahydroxyflavan (3) were partially rational for antidiabetic effect of this plant species. Among these compounds, 3 (IC50 98.59 µg/mL) exhibited potent inhibition of α-glucosidase, compared with a positive control acarbose (IC50 125 µg/mL). The inhibitory effect towards α-glucosidase of compounds 1-3 was reported herein for the first time.

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BACKGROUND: Patients with chronic illnesses are often required to take lifelong medication to alleviate symptoms and prevent disease progression. Many patients find it difficult to adhere to prescribed medication for various reasons, some of which may link to the way they conceptualise medicines and understand their illness and treatment. This study explores the medicine taking behaviours of patients presenting with Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease. We focused particularly on patients' conceptualisation and understanding of medicines within this disease context, against a backdrop of scarce healthcare resources. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 18 female patients at a rheumatology clinic in South Africa, as well as a review of participants' medical records. We conducted a secondary analysis of the data using thematic analysis and framework analysis principles. RESULTS: Participants reported a range of medicine taking behaviours including self-medicating, adding complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) or traditional remedies, and sometimes acquiring prescribed medicines illegally. Participants provided insights into their understanding of what constitutes a medicine and what substances can be added to a prescribed regimen, which impacted on adherence. Importantly, the majority of participants demonstrated poor understanding of their illness, medications, regimens and dosage instructions. CONCLUSIONS: Medicine taking in the context of RA, within the studied demographic, is complex and appears strongly mediated by individual and contextual factors. Poor patient understanding, individual conceptualisation of medicines and medicine taking, and the availability of a range of additional medicines and remedies impact on adherence. Based on these findings, we make some suggestions for how healthcare providers can play a greater role in educating patients living with RA about medicines, CAM and traditional remedies, as well as medicine taking behaviours.

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BACKGROUND: Burn first aid awareness has been shown to reduce morbidity and mortality. We present a report on the knowledge and practices of the Saudi population with regard to burn first aid and the application of traditional remedies. METHODS: An internet-based survey was conducted to assess the public's knowledge on first aid practices and home remedies applied for burn injuries among Saudi adults. RESULTS: A total of 2758 individuals responded to the survey. There were 1178 (42.7 %) respondents who had previously received burn first aid information. One thousand five hundred fifty respondents had a history of burn exposure in which burn injury first aid was applied as follows: 1118 (72.1 %) removed clothing and accessories from the injured area; water was applied by 990 (63.9 %); among those who applied water, 877 (88.6 %) applied cold water; and only 57 (5.8 %) did so for more than 15 min. Wrapping the burn area was performed by 526 (33.9 %), and 985 (63.5 %) sought medical assistance. When it comes to traditional remedies, 2134 (77.4 %) knew of and/or implemented these remedies as first aid or to treat burns. Honey and toothpaste were the commonest among these remedies with 1491 (69.9 %) and 1147 (53.7 %), respectively. This was associated with female gender (r = 0.87, P < 0.001), younger age group (19-25 years) (r = 0.077, P < 0.001), from central region (r = 0.012, P < 0.001), and university graduate (r = 0.05, P = 0.002). Nearly half of those who knew of traditional remedies did not have previous knowledge of burn first aid. CONCLUSIONS: Proper burn first aid is a simple, cheap, and accessible means of managing burns initially. Although the majority of the respondents were university graduates (51.1 %), knowledge and implementation of burn first aid was very poor. Major healthcare agencies should review and promote a consistent guideline for burn first aid in an effort to tackle and minimize the effect of this grave injury.

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ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Taste (rasa) is traditionally valued in Ayurveda as an important ethnopharmacological category, and reported to correlate with certain therapeutic activities (karman). The present paper endeavors to provide for the first time a type of mapping of ayurvedic ethnopharmacological space by the integration of medicinal plant taste-activity relationship (TA) data, originating from several traditional sources. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The present TA database included 183 ayurvedic medicinal plants, with their traditional description of taste and ethnophamacological actions (EPA). 111 plants had a unique taste, and 72 plants a combination of several tastes, consisting of one principal taste, and other 2-4 secondary tastes. 121 ethnopharmacological actions were considered. Potential global or individual associations between rasa and karman were statistically analyzed. RESULTS: We found a statistically significant global correspondence between the predominant plant taste and the ethnopharmacological activities (Chi-square test, p<0.05), and the following individual associations (Fisher exact test, p<0.05, positive association if lnOR >0, negative association if lnOR <0): bitter- 11 positive associations (lnOR 0.940 to 3.544) and 8 negative associations (lnOR -0.997 to -3.101), sweet- 14 positive associations (lnOR 0.839 to 3.132) and 20 negative associations (lnOR -0.962 to -3.270), pungent- 23 positive associations (lnOR 0.835 to 4.126) and 11 negative associations (lnOR -1.255 to -3.147), astringent- 7 positive associations (lnOR 1.099 to 3.813) and 7 negative associations (lnOR -1.076 to -2.631), sour- 7 positive associations (lnOR 1.128 to 4.664) and 1 negative association (lnOR -2.244). Among the 109 statistically significant associations, 24 were not traditionally mentioned, and only 4 were in opposition with the traditional ayurvedic sources. DISCUSSIONS: The present study confirms the traditional relationship rasa-karman and demonstrates that statistical models can be used to predict EPAs of medicinal plants depending on their taste. Integration of the ayurvedic concept of taste into ethnopharmacological research might reveal new facets of plant therapeutic potentials and provide a framework for developing a probabilistic approach to drug discovery that can be exploited to increase bioprospecting research efficacy.

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