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The soybean pod borer Leguminivora glycinivorella (Matsumura) is one of the most important soybean pests and often causes serious damage to Glycine max (L.) Merr., a leading source of dietary protein and oil in animal feed. However, the potential distribution patterns of this economically important pest and its driving factors require further investigation. Here, we used the optimized MaxEnt model to predict the potential distribution of this pest with multiple variables associated with climate, land use, and host plant, at its recorded range and a globe scale. Based on 4 variable combinations, the results show that the current suitable habitats of L. glycinivorella are primarily distributed in most of China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan. Whereas no suitable area is present in other continents. In future projections, the suitable region shows a slight northward expansion compared with the result predicted with current climatic conditions, and the suitable areas of almost all future projections were stable in size. Among the 9 bioclimatic factors, BIO03 (isothermality) consistently highly contributes to the predictions, indicating that temperature may be a key factor influencing the habitat distribution of L. glycinivorella. Comparative analyses of projections further show that non-climatic factors are informative in the modeling as routinely used bioclimate variables. The spatio-temporal distribution patterns of suitable habitats and the regulatory factors predicted in this study could provide important guidance for L. glycinivorella management.

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Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) represent a threat to wine production in Mediterranean countries. In recent years, the development of new formulations promoted the spread of pheromone-based mating disruption (MD) as an effective tool for the management of several insect pests in different agricultural contexts. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of an experimental dispenser designed for simultaneous MD of these two pests. The biodegradable double-tube dispenser (Isonet® L CG-BIOX235) was tested for two years in two Italian wine-growing sites, the first in Apulia (Southern Italy), and the second in Tuscany (Central Italy). Isonet® L CG-BIOX235 efficacy was evaluated by testing different doses (i.e., 300, 400, and 500 dispensers/ha), on different varieties (i.e., Aglianico, Syrah, and Viognier), and comparing it with an untreated control. The MD performed using this dispenser significantly reduced the infestation of both L. botrana (i.e., percentage of infested bunches and number of nests per bunch) and C. gnidiella compared to the untreated control, although the occurrence of the latter fluctuated throughout the two-year trials. Overall, although our results underline the possibility of combining the pheromones of the two pests in a single dispenser for their simultaneous MD, they also highlight the need for further studies on some aspects of C. gnidiella biology and consequently improve the MD efficacy against this species.

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Morphological organization, ultrastructure and adaptational changes under different light intensities (10000, 100, 1, and 0.01 mW/m2) of the compound eye of the oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck 1916) were investigated. Its superposition type of eyes consist of approximately 1072 ommatidia in males and 1029 ommatidia in females with ommatidial diameters of around 15 µm. Each ommatidium features a laminated corneal lens densely covered by corneal nipples of 256 nm in height. Crystalline cones are formed by four cone cells, proximally tapering to form a narrow crystalline tract with a diameter of 1.5 µm. Eight retinula cells, two primary and six secondary pigment cells per ommatidium are present. The 62.3 µm long rhabdom is divided into a thin 1.8 µm wide distal and a 5.2 µm wide proximal region. Distally the fused rhabdom consists of the rhabdomeres of seven retinula cells (R1-R7) and connects with the crystalline cone. In the proximal rhabdom region, the pigment-containing retinula cell R8 occupies a position in centre of the rhabdom while R1-R7 cells have taken peripheral positions. At this level each ommatidial group of retinula cells is surrounded by a tracheal tapetum. In response to changes from bright-light to dim-light adaptations, the pigment granules in the secondary pigment cells and retinula cells migrate distally, with a decrease in the length of crystalline tract.

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Leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) are a large family of small moths containing over 10,000 species, many of which are crop pests. Grapholita molesta, Lobesia botrana and Cydia pomonella adults are sexually active before, during and after sunset, respectively. We wanted to determine whether being active at different times of the day and night is associated with differences in their visual system. Spectral sensitivity (SS) was measured with electroretinograms and selective adaptation with green, blue and ultraviolet light. SS curves could be fitted with a triple nomogram template which indicated the existence of three photoreceptor classes peaking at 355, 440 and 525 nm. The retinae showed clear regionalization, with fewer blue receptors dorsally. No differences among species or between sexes were found. Intracellular recordings in C. pomonella also revealed three photoreceptor classes with sensitivities peaking at 355, 440 and 525 nm. The blue photoreceptors showed inhibitory responses in the green part of the spectrum, indicating the presence of a colour-opponent system. Flicker fusion frequency experiments showed that the response speed was similar between sexes and species and fused at around 100 Hz. Our results indicate that the three species have the ancestral insect retinal substrate for a trichromatic colour vision, based upon the UV, blue and green-sensitive photoreceptors, and lack any prominent adaptations related to being active under different light conditions.

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Despite the great amount of information on the European Grapevine Moth (EGVM), Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), and the effective strategies available for its management, this moth remains the main key pest damaging grapevines in the Mediterranean and Central Europe wine-growing areas. Synthesizing and manipulating its sex pheromone components fostered the development of new dispensers to boost the effectiveness and sustainability of mating disruption (MD) programs. Recent MD research has highlighted that the effectiveness of aerosol emitters is comparable to that of passive dispensers when applied in large, uniform sites such as Spanish vineyards. However, aerosol emitters that are equally effective in geographical areas characterized by small-sized vineyards, typical of many Italian regions, have not received enough research attention. To face this challenge, herein the experimental aerosol emitter (product code: Isonet® L MISTERX843) was tested at three different application rates (i.e., 2, 3 and 4 units/ha) in three study sites, two in Tuscany (Central Italy in 2017 and 2018) and one in Emilia-Romagna (Northern Italy in 2017), respectively, for a total of five trials. To assess the efficacy of this novel MD aerosol emitter, three different application densities were compared with an untreated control and two grower's standards. The latter were represented by passive (Isonet® L TT) and active (Checkmate® Puffer® LB) release dispensers, already on the market for EGVM MD and applied at, respectively, 200-300 and 2.5-4 units/ha. MD carried out with Isonet® L MISTERX843 led to zero catches of males in the pheromone traps. They also allowed for a significant reduction in the number of infested flower clusters and bunches, as well as in the number of nests per flowers cluster/bunch, if compared to the untreated control. As a general trend, MD effectiveness was fully comparable, or even better, if compared to the grower's standard. In conclusion, our research pointed out that the Isonet® L MISTERX843 can allow for effective EGVM management in small-sized Italian vineyards. Lastly, our economic evaluation showed that the MD whole cost per hectare using active or passive release devices was comparable.

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The control region (CR) of the mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) represents a major noncoding fragment with several special structural features that are thought to be responsible for the initiation of mitogenome transcription and replication. However, few studies have revealed the evolutionary patterns of CR in the phylogenetic context. Here, we explain the characteristics and evolution of CR in Tortricidae, inferred from a mitogenome-based phylogeny. The first complete mitogenomes of the genera Meiligma and Matsumuraeses were sequenced. Both mitogenomes are double-stranded circular DNA molecules with lengths of 15,675 bp and 15,330 bp, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses derived from 13 protein-coding genes and two ribosomal RNAs showed that most tribes, including subfamilies Olethreutinae and Tortricinae, were recovered as monophyletic clades, similar to previous studies based on morphological or nuclear data. Moreover, comprehensive comparative analyses of the structural organization and role of tandem replications on the length variation and high AT content of CR sequences were conducted. The results reveal a significant positive correlation between the total length and AT content of tandem repeats and whole CR sequences in Tortricidae. The structural organization in CR sequences is diverse, even between closely related tribes, which demonstrates the plasticity of the mitochondrial DNA molecule in Tortricidae.

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The predatory ability of ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) against insect pests can offer an important service to agricultural activities and may sometimes be directly exploited in biological control strategies. The codling moth Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) is a major agricultural pest of fruit orchards, whose biological control is complicated by the fact that the larvae spend most of their life protected within the fruits they damage. In a recent experiment in Europe, pear trees in which ant activity was artificially increased by the addition of sugary liquid dispensers (artificial nectaries) suffered less damage caused by the larvae to their fruits. While some ants were already known to prey upon the mature larvae or pupae of C. pomonella in the soil, prevention of fruit damage would require predation upon eggs or newly hatched larvae, which have not yet excavated into the fruits. We verified whether two different Mediterranean ants frequently observed in fruit orchards, Crematogaster scutellaris and Tapinoma magnum, were able to prey upon C. pomonella eggs and larvae in laboratory conditions. Our experiments demonstrated that both species similarly attacked and killed young C. pomonella larvae. On the other hand, the eggs mostly attracted the attention of T. magnum but were never damaged. Further field assessments are required to understand whether ants may also interfere with oviposition by adults or whether larger ant species, although generally rarer in orchards, may also prey upon eggs.

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Biodiversity conservation decisions are typically based on limited data and resources. For this reason, there is great interest in surveying taxa that may allow for a rapid assessment of the biodiversity at a site. Numerous taxa have been proposed and utilized for rapid assessments that allow for such a survey in a matter of weeks or less. Herein, we test the idea that nocturnal moths have many of the characteristics that make them ideal for such surveys, such as relative ease of identification, strong ecological association with specific plant species and habitats, high alpha diversity, extended seasonal activity, and ease of trapping. We demonstrate that even in a few hours of sampling during single night surveys, moth communities are predictive of regional forest types at sampling sites in New Jersey. We sampled moths in five different forest habitats in New Jersey, USA: Pine Barrens, Upland Deciduous Forest, Palustrine Deciduous Forest, Maritime Forest, and Ruderal/Disturbed Forests, at four sites per forest type. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analyses revealed that moth communities differ significantly across these four forest types (p < 0.01). We used Analysis of Similarity (ANOSIM) R tests to quantify the degree of differentiation among moth communities, and found that Tortricidae (R = 0.657) and Geometridae (R = 0.637) predict forest communities nearly as well as the total moth diversity (R = 0.668). Uncommon species (R = 0.665) were better predictors than common species (R = 0.500). Host plant generalists (R = 0.654) were better predictors than specialists (0.538), which was a surprising find.

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Choristoneura fumiferana (SBW) is a major defoliating pest of balsam fir and spruce in eastern North America. As part of an integrated management strategy for SBW, we evaluated the effectiveness of mating disruption as a landscape-level population control tactic. Using a sprayable formulation (CONFOUNDSBW) containing a synthetic sex pheromone blend, we treated five 300 ha blocks in Northern New Brunswick with an aerially applied microencapsulated mixture. There were significant reductions in adult trap catches in treated blocks compared to untreated control blocks. Branch sampling in treated blocks showed uniform distribution of CONFOUNDSBW deposition throughout the blocks. Population densities following treatment were not significantly affected when compared to densities in control blocks, or prior to treatment. Analysis of egg:adult ratios indicates that no immigration events occurred within treatment or control blocks. The lack of population reduction following treatment strongly suggests that widespread application of CONFOUNDSBW at a rate of 50 g of active ingredient per hectare is not an effective tool in controlling SBW populations.

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Parasitoid wasps are known to be among the most abundant and species-rich on Earth and thus considered an ecologically important group of arthropods. Braconid wasps play a key role in regulating the populations of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. However, the biology and taxonomy of numerous parasitoid species remain poorly known. In Mexico, only 17 species of the subfamily Cheloninae have been described. A new species of Pseudophanerotoma Zettel, 1990 (Hymenoptera, Braconidae), P.huichol sp. nov., is described from Nayarit, Mexico. The tortricid moth Cryptaspasmaperseana Gilligan & Brown, 2011 is reported as the host of this parasitoid wasp. Detailed taxonomic and barcoding information are provided.

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Insects have developed various adaptations to survive harsh winter conditions. Among freeze-intolerant species, some produce "antifreeze proteins" (AFPs) that bind to nascent ice crystals and inhibit further ice growth. Such is the case of the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a destructive North American conifer pest that can withstand temperatures below -30°C. Despite the potential importance of AFPs in the adaptive diversification of Choristoneura, genomic tools to explore their origins have until now been limited. Here we present a chromosome-scale genome assembly for C. fumiferana, which we used to conduct comparative genomic analyses aimed at reconstructing the evolutionary history of tortricid AFPs. The budworm genome features 16 genes homologous to previously reported C. fumiferana AFPs (CfAFPs), 15 of which map to a single region on chromosome 18. Fourteen of these were also detected in five congeneric species, indicating Choristoneura AFP diversification occurred before the speciation event that led to C. fumiferana. Although budworm AFPs were previously considered unique to the genus Choristoneura, a search for homologs targeting recently sequenced tortricid genomes identified seven CfAFP-like genes in the distantly related Notocelia uddmanniana. High structural similarity between Notocelia and Choristoneura AFPs suggests a common origin, despite the absence of homologs in three related tortricids. Interestingly, one Notocelia AFP formed the C-terminus of a "zonadhesin-like" protein, possibly representing the ancestral condition from which tortricid AFPs evolved. Future work should clarify the evolutionary path of AFPs between Notocelia and Choristoneura and assess the role of the "zonadhesin-like" protein as precursor of tortricid AFPs.

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Codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.) is a very important pest in apple, pear, and walnut orchards worldwide, including the USA. Cydia pomonella granulovirus (CpGV) is used to control codling moth in organic and conventional production. Due to increasing codling moth infestations from organic apple orchards in Washington State, USA, five codling moth colonies (WA1-WA5) were screened for their susceptibility relative to the isolate GV-0001, the main active ingredient of Cyd-X®, using a discriminating concentration of 6 × 104 OB/mL. Compared to a susceptible laboratory colony, the observed results indicated that GV-0001 lacked efficacy against codling moth colony WA3. It was confirmed that WA3 was the first case of codling moth resistance to CpGV in the USA. Further testing of WA3 was performed on a range of CpGV isolates and a lack of efficacy was observed against additional isolates. However, three newly developed CpGV preparations can efficiently infect larvae from the resistant colony WA3. Our results suggest that there is an urgent need to monitor the situation in the USA, aiming to prevent the emergence or spread of additional codling moth populations with CpGV resistance. Strategies to sustain the efficacy of codling moth control using novel CpGV formulations need to be developed.

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Kennelia is a small genus in Tortricidae that is distributed in the Oriental and Palaearctic regions, and its taxonomic position within the subfamily Olethreutinae is controversial. For a comprehensive understanding of the genus, we sequenced the mitogenome of Kennelia xylinana, the type species of Kennelia, and Ancylis unculana, a species of Enarmoniini; analyzed the mitogenome characteristics of K. xylinana; and explored its phylogenetic position. Similar to other members of Lepidoptera, the mitogenome of K. xylinana is 15,762-bp long and consists of 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNA genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, and a noncoding control region. In particular, we found a structure (TATAATTAATAA)11 in the middle of the AT-rich region. Based on the Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood analyses of the 13 PCGs of 40 tortricid species, representing 8 tribes of 2 subfamilies, K. xylinana was clustered with two members of Enarmoniini, A. unculana and Loboschiza koenigiana, and formed highly supported monophyly. The results indicate that Kennelia should be placed in the tribe Enarmoniini.

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The leaf roller, Clepsis pallidana (Fabricius, 1776) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is an important pest of many crops in China. The circular genome is 15,679 bp in length, consisting of 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, and a non-coding AT-rich region. The base composition of the whole mitogenome is 41.2% A, 40.1% T, 11.1% C, and 7.7% G, which shows a strong AT bias. Phylogenetic analysis based on 13 PCGs showed that C. pallidana was closely related to Epiphyas postvittana and clustered within Archipini clade, which was consistent with the traditional classification.

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Background: The diversity of moth species (Insecta, Lepidoptera) recorded in the forest nursery of Nordeste County on São Miguel Island (Azores) is given. Adults were sampled between March and December 2019 using three methods: (i) light trap to catch Noctuidae species, (ii) open-sided delta trap baited with a synthetic female sex pheromone lure to attract Epiphyaspostvittana (Walker) males and (iii) entomological net to collect microlepidopteran moths. This contribution focuses mainly on the diversity of moths present in one forest nursery of Nordeste County of São Miguel Island (Azores), especially on the species associated with endemic and native plant species. It also contributes to better plan strategies for integrated protection and conservation measures, since nurseries host a great diversity of plants from the Laurel Forest, which may attract many lepidopteran species. New information: A total of 10160 adults belonging to 33 lepidopteran species were recorded and listed by families, including: Argyresthiidae, one species (3%), Crambidae, four species (12%), Erebidae, one species (3%), Geometridae, five species (15%), Noctuidae, 18 species (55%), Sphingidae, one species (3%), Tineidae, one species (3%) and Tortricidae, two species (6%). The families Noctuidae, Geometridae and Crambidae were the most diverse. Those with the highest abundance of adults were the Noctuidae family, followed by the Geometridae, Crambidae, Tortricidae and Tineidae. The number of caught adults was consistently higher during spring and summer, decreasing sharply in late autumn. For 13 species caught in the light trap, the adult sex ratio was favourable to females. An analysis of the colonisation status, feeding and primary hosts of these endemic, native or exotic moth species contributes to our understanding of the factors that may lead to their establishment in Laurel Forest environments and to what extent there is a need to monitor and control them mainly with biological control agents.

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The complete mitochondrial genome of Cochylimorpha cultana (Lederer) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) was 15,348 bps in size, and comprised 37 genes, which were 13 PCGs, 22 tRNA genes and two rRNA genes. Most PCGs used the conventional ATN start codon, except for cox1 initiating with CGA. Four genes (cox1, cox2, nad4 and nad5) used single T residue as stop condon. 21 out of 22 tRNAs are folded into the cloverleaf secondary structure, except for trnS1. The phylogenetic analysis based on maximum-likelihood (ML) method revealed that the evolutionary status of C. cultana in Tortricinae at the molecular level, which agrees well with the classical taxonomy.

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We evaluated the potential of the European root-feeding moth Dichrorampha aeratana as a biological control agent for the invasive weed Leucanthemum vulgare (oxeye daisy) in North America and Australia. The taxonomic proximity of the ornamental Shasta daisy (Leucanthemum × superbum) to L. vulgare and its popularity in North America made finding sufficiently host-specific biological control agents a challenge. No-choice tests conducted with 74 non-target species revealed partial or complete larval development on 11 species. In multiple-choice oviposition and larval development tests that were conducted in field cages, larvae were found on five of these, however in multiple-choice tests conducted under open-field conditions, larvae were only found on the ornamentals Shasta daisy and creeping daisy (Mauranthemum paludosum). Larval feeding by D. aeratana had no measurable impact on Shasta daisy, but larval feeding and plant competition reduced the biomass and number of flower heads of L. vulgare. We conclude that D. aeratana is a suitable biological control agent because it will not affect the ornamental value of Shasta or creeping daisies and because it is unlikely to feed on any other economically important or native species. We also expect D. aeratana to contribute to the suppression of L. vulgare populations.

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BACKGROUND: Captures of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), in traps are used to establish action thresholds and time insecticide sprays. The need for frequent trap inspections in often remote orchards has created a niche for remote sensing smart traps. A smart trap baited with a five-component pheromone-kairomone blend was evaluated for codling moth monitoring among an assemblage of other nontargets in apple and pear orchards. RESULTS: Codling moth captures did not differ between the smart trap and a standard trap when both were checked manually. However, the correlation between automatic and manual counts of codling moth in the smart traps was low, R2  = 0.66 ÷ 0.87. False-negative identifications by the smart trap were infrequent <5%, but false-positive identifications accounted for up to 67% of the count. These errors were primarily due to the misidentification of three moth species of fairly similar-size to codling moth: apple clearwing moth Synanthedon myopaeformis (Borkhausen), oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck), and carnation tortrix Cacoecimorpha pronubana (Hübner). Other false-positive counts were less frequent and included the misidentifications of dipterans, other arthropods, patches of moth scales, and the double counting of some moths. CONCLUSION: Codling moth was successfully monitored remotely with a smart trap baited with a nonselective sex pheromone-kairomone lure, but automatic counts were inflated in some orchards due to mischaracterizations of primarily similar-sized nontarget moths. Improved image-identification algorithms are needed for smart traps baited with less-selective lures and with lure sets targeting multiple species.

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BACKGROUND: Defining the origin of genetic novelty is central to our understanding of the evolution of novel traits. Diversification among fatty acid desaturase (FAD) genes has played a fundamental role in the introduction of structural variation in fatty acyl derivatives. Because of its central role in generating diversity in insect semiochemicals, the FAD gene family has become a model to study how gene family expansions can contribute to the evolution of lineage-specific innovations. Here we used the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) as a study system to decipher the proximate mechanism underlying the production of the ∆8∆10 signature structure of olethreutine moths. Biosynthesis of the codling moth sex pheromone, (E8,E10)-dodecadienol (codlemone), involves two consecutive desaturation steps, the first of which is unusual in that it generates an E9 unsaturation. The second step is also atypical: it generates a conjugated diene system from the E9 monoene C12 intermediate via 1,4-desaturation. RESULTS: Here we describe the characterization of the FAD gene acting in codlemone biosynthesis. We identify 27 FAD genes corresponding to the various functional classes identified in insects and Lepidoptera. These genes are distributed across the C. pomonella genome in tandem arrays or isolated genes, indicating that the FAD repertoire consists of both ancient and recent duplications and expansions. Using transcriptomics, we show large divergence in expression domains: some genes appear ubiquitously expressed across tissue and developmental stages; others appear more restricted in their expression pattern. Functional assays using heterologous expression systems reveal that one gene, Cpo_CPRQ, which is prominently and exclusively expressed in the female pheromone gland, encodes an FAD that possesses both E9 and ∆8∆10 desaturation activities. Phylogenetically, Cpo_CPRQ clusters within the Lepidoptera-specific ∆10/∆11 clade of FADs, a classic reservoir of unusual desaturase activities in moths. CONCLUSIONS: Our integrative approach shows that the evolution of the signature pheromone structure of olethreutine moths relied on a gene belonging to an ancient gene expansion. Members of other expanded FAD subfamilies do not appear to play a role in chemical communication. This advises for caution when postulating the consequences of lineage-specific expansions based on genomics alone.

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Rhopalovalva chidorinoki Nasu, sp. nov. is described from Japan, with the photographs of the adult and genitalia. The diagnostic characters of the new species are given with comparison with the allied species, R. exartemana (Kennel, 1901).

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