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Alternative protein sources with greater nutritional value and a lower environmental footprint have recently attracted interest in the production of meat substitutes. However, it is required that these alternatives mimic the texture and structure of meat. This study investigated varying ratios of textured vegetable proteins (TVP) to Tenebrio molitor larvae (brown mealworm; TM) with the addition of transglutaminase (TG) to determine the quality characteristics of these emulsions. The results demonstrated low protein solubility of the emulsions as TVP content increased. Furthermore, when the proportion of TM was high, the TG-treated emulsion had a low pH. Additionally, when there was a high TM ratio to TVP in the TG treatment, the emulsions demonstrated better thermal stability and water holding capacity. Regarding the rheological properties of the emulsion, both the frequency-dependent storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G'') increased as the proportion of TVP in the emulsion increased with and without the addition of TG. Differential scanning calorimetry analyses demonstrated two protein denaturation peaks in all treatments, with high peak temperatures for both treatments with a high proportion of TM. The hardness and chewiness of the emulsion were highest in the treatment (T6 and T8) with TG, and the gumminess of the emulsion was greatest when TM only or when equal ratios of TVP and TM were treated with TG, respectively. In conclusion, the addition of TM to TVP with TG improves the overall texture of the protein mixture, making it a suitable meat alternative.

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The concept of plant-based protein consumption has been increasing recently because of the growing health consciousness among people. Mung bean is one of the most consumed legumes with a dense nutrient profile. Hence, current research is aimed to study the effect of mung bean protein-based products including mung bean snack (MBS) and textured vegetable protein (TVP) for treatment groups against the control groups, commercial ingredients group consisting of mung bean powder (MBP) and pea powder (PP) and commercial products group include commercial pea texture (cPT) and commercial textured vegetable protein (cTVP) for their proximate composition, digestibility, gut microbial profile and fatty acid metabolite profiling. The MBS and TVP samples had significantly higher digestibility of 74.43% and 73.24% than the commercial products. The protein content of TVP was 0.8 times higher than its commercial control. Gut microbiome profiling showed that all the samples shared around 162 similar genera. Post-fermentation analysis provided promising results by reflecting the growth of beneficial bacteria (Parabacteroides, Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus) and the suppression of pathogens (Escherichia-Shigella, Dorea and Klebsiella). The dual relationship between gut microbiota and nutrient interaction proved the production of abundant short- and branched-chain fatty acids. The MBS sample was able to produce SCFAs (41.27 mM) significantly and BCFAs (2.02 mM) than the TVP sample (27.58 mM and 2.14 mM, respectively). Hence, our research outcomes proved that the mung bean protein-based products might infer numerous health benefits to the host due to enriched probiotics in the gut and the production of their corresponding metabolites.

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BACKGROUND: Understanding the relationship between perceived sensory attributes and measurable instrumental properties is crucial for replicating the distinct textures of meat in plant-based meat analogs. In this study, plant-based patties composed of textured vegetable protein (TVP) and 10%, 20% and 30% TVPs were substituted with fibers from sweet potato stem (SPS), and their instrumental texture and sensory properties were evaluated. RESULTS: Samples with 20% SPS showed hardness, cohesiveness and chewiness, which are the mechanical indicators most similar to those of meat. A descriptive sensory analysis by ten trained participants indicated that the SPS-supplemented meat analog patties exhibited characteristics similar to pork patties in terms of firmness, toughness, cohesiveness and smoothness compared to the TVP-only sample. A strong positive correlation between instrumental hardness and sensory firmness was observed (P < 0.01); however, cohesiveness, springiness and chewiness did not show any correlation between instrumental and sensory analyses. Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values showed positive correlations with sensory cohesiveness, chewiness, toughness, fibrousness, moistness, firmness and springiness (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The results demonstrated the feasibility of physically treated fibers from SPS as a partial substitute for TVP in developing meat analogs. Additionally, this study suggested that instrumental hardness and WBSF measurements can be sound parameters for representing sensory texture characteristics while further developing plant-based meat analogs. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

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In this study, textured vegetable protein (TVP) based on soy protein isolate, wheat gluten, and corn starch was prepared at a 5:3:2 (w/w) ratio using a low-moisture extrusion process. To evaluate the effects of extrusion parameters, die temperature and screw rotation speed, on the properties of TVP, these two parameters were manipulated at a constant barrel temperature and moisture content. The results indicated that increasing the die temperature increased the expansion ratio while decreasing the density of the extrudates. Simultaneously, increasing the screw rotation speed clearly increased the specific mechanical energy of the TVP. Furthermore, mathematical modelling suggested that the expansion ratio increases exponentially to the die temperature. However, extreme process conditions bring about a decrease in water absorption capacity and expansion ratio, as well as undesirable texture and microstructure. The results suggested that the properties of SPI-based TVP are directly influenced by the extrusion process parameters, screw speed and die temperature. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01207-8.

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In this study, a dietary fiber extracted from sweet potato stems (Ipomoea batatas, PS) was evaluated for its ability to improve the quality of vegetable patty analogues. A patty analogues containing 0-50 wt% dietary fiber were prepared to analyze the utilized dietary fiber's performance. To evaluate the manufactured patty analogues, texture profile analysis, color analysis, emulsion stability, and microstructural analysis were conducted. As the PS increased, the hardness decreased, while the total expressible fluids tended to increase. The color analysis revealed that the a* value, which represents red, declined as the PS content increased, and heterogeneous colors showed at least 40 wt% of PS. According to the microstructural analysis, PS is a structure in which massive fiber bundles are integrated between textured vegetable protein networks, which is believed to have given the patty analogue soft characteristics. The findings of this study can serve as a foundation for future research into the application of carbohydrates to plant-based meat analogues. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01211-y.

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The increase in meat consumption could adversely affect the environment. Thus, there is growing interest in meat analogs. Soy protein isolate is the most common primary material to produce low- and high-moisture meat analogs (LMMA and HMMA), and full-fat soy (FFS) is another promising ingredient for LMMA and HMMA. Therefore, in this study, LMMA and HMMA with FFS were manufactured, and then their physicochemical properties were investigated. The water holding capacity, springiness, and cohesiveness of LMMA decreased with increasing FFS contents, whereas the integrity index, chewiness, cutting strength, degree of texturization, DPPH free radical scavenging activity, and total phenolic content of LMMA increased when FFS contents increased. While the physical properties of HMMA decreased with the increasing FFS content, its DPPH free radical scavenging activity and total phenolic contents increased. In conclusion, when full-fat soy content increased from 0% to 30%, there was a positive influence on the fibrous structure of LMMA. On the other hand, the HMMA process requires additional research to improve the fibrous structure with FFS.

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Due to growing interest in health and sustainability, the demand for replacing animal-based ingredients with more sustainable alternatives has increased. Many studies have been conducted on plant-based meat, but only a few have investigated the effect of adding a suitable binder to plant-based meat to enhance meat texture. Thus, this study investigated the effects of the addition of transglutaminase (TG) and glucono-δ-lactone (GdL) on the physicochemical, textural, and sensory characteristics of plant-based ground meat products. The addition of a high quantity of GdL(G10T0) had an effect on the decrease in lightness (L* 58.98) and the increase in redness (a* 3.62). TG and GdL also decreased in terms of cooking loss (CL) and water holding capacity (WHC) of PBMPs. G5T5 showed the lowest CL (3.8%), while G3T7 showed the lowest WHC (86.02%). The mechanical properties also confirmed that G3T7-added patties have significantly high hardness (25.49 N), springiness (3.7 mm), gumminess (15.99 N), and chewiness (57.76 mJ). The improved textural properties can compensate for the chewability of PBMPs. Although the overall preference for improved hardness was not high compared to the control in the sensory test, these results provide a new direction for improving the textural properties of plant-based meat by using binders and forming fibrous structures.

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Meat analogues are garnering significant attention as future food and a sustainable diet. This study demonstrates the possibility of using rice protein (RP) to create new meat analogues. Various RP substitution ratios [0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 % (w/w)] for soy protein (SP) were used to prepare the meat analogues based on a low-moisture extrusion cooking. The effect of its ratio on the meat quality characteristics was investigated via specific mechanical energy, expansion ratio, piece density, true density, porosity, water absorption capacity, rehydration kinetics, and texture profile (hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and resilience). The use of RP decreased some values (specific mechanical energy, porosity, expansion ratio, water absorption capacity, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and resilience) while increasing others (piece density, true density, and hardness) depending on its substitution ratio. Three different models (Peleg, Weibull, and exponential) were used to describe the rehydration kinetics of the samples, and the Weibull model was the best-fitted one. Finally, twelve polynomial equations with RP mixing ratios (0-100 %) as variables were developed to predict the quality characteristics of meat analogues. These results suggested that RP can substitute the typical SP as an expansion or texture modifier in the production of SP-based meat analogue products, and a portion of SP (≤75 %, w/w) can be substituted with RP in the production of meat analogue products. Still, the full RP substitution was impossible due to the low porosity of the resulting meat analogue.

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Rising concerns of environment and health from animal-based proteins have driven a massive demand for plant proteins. Textured vegetable protein (TVP) is a plant-protein-based product with fibrous textures serving as a promising meat analog. This study aimed to establish possible correlations between the properties of raw TVPs and the corresponding meatless patties. Twenty-eight commercial TVPs based on different protein types and from different manufacturers were compared in proximate compositions, physicochemical and functional properties, as well as cooking and textural attributes in meatless patties. Significant differences were observed in the compositions and properties of the raw TVPs (p < 0.05) and were well reflected in the final patties. Of all the TVP attributes, rehydration capacity (RHC) was the most dominant factor affecting cooking loss (r = 0.679) and textures of hardness (r = −0.791), shear force (r = −0.621) and compressed juiciness (r = 0.812) in meatless patties, as evidenced by the significant correlations (p < 0.01). The current study may advance the knowledge for TVP-based meat development.

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Edible scaffolds are needed in cultured meat to mimic meat's three-dimensional structure by organizing cells and replenishing the insufficient meat mass of cells alone. However, there is still a large gap between slaughtered meat and cells developed into tissues using scaffolds. This is mainly due to the difference in size, texture, flavor, and taste. In this study, we develop a coating matrix to modify the surface of textured vegetable protein (TVP), a vegetable cell support, to produce cultured meat having slaughtered meat's essential characteristics. We optimized the fish gelatin/agar matrix's microstructure by controlling the ratio of the two biopolymers, stably introducing a cell adhesive environment on the TVP. By coating the optimized gelatin/agar matrix on the TVP's surface using an easy and fast dipping method, hybrid cultured meat composed of animal cells and plant protein was produced. As the cells proliferated, their synergistic effect permitted the cultured meat's texture, flavor, and taste to reach a level comparable to that of slaughtered meat. The TVP-based cultured meat prepared with the present technology has been recreated as high-quality cultured meat by satisfying five challenging factors: cells, texture, cost, mass, and flavor.

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Meat analogs produced through extruded products, such as texture vegetable protein (TVP) with the addition of various plant-based ingredients are considered the products that have great potential for replacing real meat. This systematic review was conducted to summarize the evidence of the incorporation of TVP on the quality characteristics of meat analogs. Extensive literature exploration was conducted up to March 2022 for retrieving studies on the current topic in both PubMed and Scopus databases. A total of 28 articles published from 2001 to 2022 were included in the data set based on specific inclusion criteria. It appears that soy protein is by far the most used extender in meat analogs due to its low cost, availability, and several beneficial health aspects. In addition, the studies included in this review were mainly conducted in countries, such as Korea, the USA, and China. Regarding quality characteristics, textural parameters were the most assessed in the studies followed by physicochemical properties, and sensory and taste attributes. Other aspects, such as the development of TVP, the difference in quality characteristics of texturized proteins, and the usage of binding agents in various meat analogs formulations are also highlighted in detail.

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A bacon-type meat analogue consists of different structural layers, such as textured protein and a fat mimetic. To obtain a coherent and appealing product, a suitable binder must glue those elements together. A mixture based on pea protein and sugar beet pectin (r = 2:1, 25% w/w solids, pH 6) with and without laccase addition and a methylcellulose hydrogel (6% w/w) serving as benchmark were applied as binder between textured protein and a fat mimetic. A tensile strength test, during which the layers were torn apart, was performed to measure the binding ability. The pea protein-sugar beet pectin mixture without laccase was viscoelastic and had medium and low binding strength at 25 °C (F ≤ 3.5 N) and 70 °C (F ≈ 1.0 N), respectively. The addition of laccase solidified the mixture and increased binding strength at 25 °C (F ≥ 4.0 N) and 70 °C (F ≈ 2.0 N), due to covalent bonds within the binder and between the binder and the textured protein or the fat mimetic layers. Generally, the binding strength was higher when two textured protein layers were glued together. The binding properties of methylcellulose hydrogel was low (F ≤ 2.0 N), except when two fat mimetic layers were bound due to hydrophobic interactions becoming dominant. The investigated mixed pectin-pea protein system is able serve as a clean-label binder in bacon-type meat analogues, and the application in other products seems promising.

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With an increasing consumer interest in meat analog products, various imitation products have been developed. Among conventional meat products, jerky-type foods are rich in proteins and exhibit a long shelf-life owing to their low water activity (<0.90). Restructured jerky is advantageous because it can be easily processed into uniform products. This study investigated the physicochemical and thermal properties of drying-induced restructured jerky analogs prepared by combining textured vegetable protein (TVP) and edible insect protein (EIP) in the following ratios: 100/0, 80/20, 60/40, 40/60, 20/80, and 0/100% (w/w), as well as the interactions between EIP and TVP. Furthermore, qualitative characteristics, color, pH, moisture content, water activity, shear force, and rehydration capacity of the analogs were investigated. In conclusion, restructured jerky analogs developed by combining TVP and EIP may provide a tender dried food with high nutritional value.

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The main objective of this study was to incorporate soy-based textured vegetable protein (TVP) into beef patties in different quantities (10-40%) and compare various characteristics of these innovative formulations with a regular beef patty as a control. Incorporation of 10-40% TVP resulted in significantly lower (p < 0.05) moisture and fat contents, while higher crude fiber contents were detected compared to beef as the control. In addition, cooked patties showed higher pH levels (p < 0.05), with color coordinates expressing lighter, yellowish, and slightly redder indices than raw patties. Similarly, a plant protein that includes TVP minimizes (p < 0.05) WHC (water holding capacity), both RW% (release water) and CL% (cooking loss). Furthermore, hardness, cohesiveness, and thickness were reduced significantly (p < 0.05), while gumminess and chewiness increased (p < 0.05) considerably with the substitution of TVP (10-40%) compared to the control. Patties made without TVP received higher scores for sourness, bitterness, umami, and richness than the rest of the formulations. However, a higher tendency was detected for sourness, astringency, umami, and saltiness values with increasing additions of TVP. Nevertheless, hierarchical clustering revealed that the largest group of fatty acid profiles, including palmitoleic acid (C16:1), stearic acid (C18:0), and palmitic acid (C16:0), was slightly reduced with the addition of TVP, while arachidic acid (C20:0), lauric acid (C12:0), and oleic acid (C18:1) increased moderately with increasing levels of TVP. Meanwhile, the second-largest cluster that included linoleic acid (C18:2), arachidonic acid (C20:4), and linolenic acid (C18:3) increased enormously with higher levels of TVP incorporation. Taken together, it is suggested that incorporation of TVP up to 10-40% in beef patties shows promising results.

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This study explored the physicochemical, textural, and sensorial properties of a meat analog (MA) as compared to beef and pork meats. Results illustrate that MA patties had lower moisture, fat, and protein content, as well as higher ash and crude fiber than beef and pork. Likewise, MA patties had a higher pH, lightness (L*), and redness (a*) than either beef or pork. Pork meat exhibited the highest released water (RW) and cooking loss (CL) values, followed closely by MA with beef displaying the lowest values. Regardless of patty type, the post-cooking diameter patties were reduced significantly (p<0.05). However, the Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF), hardness, chewiness, and gumminess of beef were significantly higher than that of either pork or MA. The visible appearance of MA patties had more porous and loose structures before and after cooking. Consequently, based on sensory parameters, MA patties demonstrated the higher values for appearance and firmness, followed by beef and pork respectively, although the difference was not statistically significant. Therefore, the current study demonstrated that some physicochemical, textural, and sensory characteristics of beef and pork exhibited the most similarity to MA.

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Isolated soy protein, wheat gluten, and starch at ratio 5:4:1 were texturized under different moisture contents (40 and 50%) and die temperature (130 and 150 °C) by the twin-screw extruder. Physicochemical properties were firstly studied. These textured vegetable proteins (TVPs) were used to form 100% plant-based burger patties. Cooking and textural features were secondly investigated. TVP at 50% moisture content and 130 °C die temperature represented the highest water absorption capacity and integrity index but the lowest solubility among TVPs. Cooking loss and shrinkage in diameter and thickness, cohesiveness, chewiness, hardness, and cutting strength of TVP meatless burger patties were significantly lower than that commercial meat patty, while moisture retention and springiness of TVP meatless burger patties were higher (p < 0.05). Our results found that the texture of patty made with TVP at 50% moisture content and 130 °C die temperature was the most similarity to commercial meat patty.

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A growing demand for alternative sources of texturized vegetable protein (TVP) has resulted from various factors including plant allergies, perceived health risks associated with genetically modified organisms (GMO), animal welfare beliefs, and lifestyle choices. Soy and wheat have been the primary ingredients in TVP over the past few decades, but desires for clean label ingredients (especially non-GMO and nonallergenic) have led to demand for alternative plant protein ingredients such as pea protein. To understand the capabilities of pea protein to create meat-like texture with additions of another protein source that also contributes starch, this study focused on extruding pea protein with increasing amounts of chickpea flour (CPF). Six treatments, with inclusions of CPF ranging from 0 to 50%, were processed on a twin-screw extruder to determine the optimal ratio of pea protein isolate to CPF. Bulk density was the greatest with 20% CPF (272 g/L) and resulted in the lowest water holding capacity (55.5%). Texture profile analysis (TPA) hardness, springiness, and chewiness showed optimum results for the 10 and 20% CPF (674 to 1024 g, 72.1 to 80.7%, 400 to 439, respectively). With no CPF addition, protein interactions created a strong network exhibiting extreme springiness (91.3%). Addition of CPF greater than 20% resulted in a detrimental decrease in hardness by 38 to 84% and chewiness by 73 to 92%. Phase transition analysis and specific mechanical energy data provided a greater understanding of the degree of texturization during extrusion. Inclusion of CPF between 10 and 20% led to the optimum protein to starch ratio, allowing adequate protein texturization and creating product characteristics that could potentially mimic meat. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Pea protein was mixed with increasing levels of chickpea flour to produce a textured plant protein product using extrusion technology. The ratio of protein to starch can be optimized to target specific textural attributes of textured pea protein to closely mimic different meat products like fish, chicken, or beef. The 10 and 20% chickpea flour treatments produced the highest quality products according to textural attributes.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of green tea contents (0, 5, 10, and 15%) on texturization and antioxidant properties of textured vegetable protein (TVP) by using a twin-screw extruder. Extrusion conditions were fixed at 140 °C barrel temperature, 50% moisture content, 100 g/min feed rate, and 200 rpm screw speed. The integrity index, hardness, and cutting strength of TVP significantly (P < 0.05) increased with the increase in green tea levels, while cohesiveness, springiness, water holding capacity, and nitrogen solubility index (NSI) significantly (P < 0.05) decreased. Increasing the amount of green tea resulted in better DPPH radical scavenging activity, higher total phenolic, total flavonoid, catechins, and caffeine contents. The (-)-epigallocatechin gallate, (-)-epicatechin, (-)-epigallocatechin, and (-)-epicatechin gallate contents of TVP significantly (P < 0.05) decreased, compared to that of raw materials. The incorporation of green tea in TVP can negatively affect expansion and NSI while positively affect texturization and antioxidant properties.

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Chicken nuggets are commonly made with varying levels of textured vegetable proteins, such as soy and wheat, for their ability to bind water and their meat like conformation. This project compared textured wheat proteins and soy proteins at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% in emulsified chicken nuggets. A total of 3,024 chicken nuggets were evaluated in replications for batter breader pickup (%), par fry yield (%), cook loss (%), L*, a*, b* color value, texture profile analysis, and sensory analysis. The analysis was conducted for all 4 concentrations of wheat and soy treatments then compared to each other and an all white meat chicken nugget control. All data were analyzed with an α < 0.05 using SAS with PROC GLM and Duncan's MRT, except for sensory data, which were analyzed as a complete randomized block design using analysis of variance with a α < 0.05 and was analyzed using SAS with PROC GLM. Chicken nuggets prepared with increasing levels of textured soy and wheat proteins exhibited generally similar properties in terms of yields, color, and objective texture. Trained panel sensory analysis indicated an increased detection of soy flavors over wheat flavors at higher inclusion percentages (30% and 40%); however, these results do not have any implication of consumer acceptance.

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