RESUMEN

Rap1 is the main protein that binds double-stranded telomeric DNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Examination of the telomere functions of Rap1 is complicated by the fact that it also acts as a transcriptional regulator of hundreds of genes and is encoded by an essential gene. In this study, we disrupt Rap1 telomere association by expressing a mutant telomerase RNA subunit (tlc1-tm) that introduces mutant telomeric repeats. tlc1-tm cells grow similar to wild-type cells, although depletion of Rap1 at telomeres causes defects in telomere length regulation and telomere capping. Rif2 is a protein normally recruited to telomeres by Rap1, but we show that Rif2 can still associate with Rap1-depleted tlc1-tm telomeres, and that this association is required to inhibit telomere degradation by the MRX complex. Rif2 and the Ku complex work in parallel to prevent tlc1-tm telomere degradation; tlc1-tm cells lacking Rif2 and the Ku complex are inviable. The partially redundant mechanisms may explain the rapid evolution of telomere components in budding yeast species.

Asunto(s)

Complejos Multiproteicos/metabolismo , ARN de Hongos/metabolismo , ARN/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Complejo Shelterina/metabolismo , Telomerasa/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/genética , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/metabolismo , Telómero/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo

RESUMEN

The Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) complex detects and processes DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Its DNA binding and processing activities are regulated by transitions between an ATP-bound state and a post-hydrolysis cutting state that is nucleolytically active. Mre11 endonuclease activity is stimulated by Sae2, whose lack increases MRX persistence at DSBs and checkpoint activation. Here we show that the Rif2 protein inhibits Mre11 endonuclease activity and is responsible for the increased MRX retention at DSBs in sae2Δ cells. We identify a Rad50 residue that is important for Rad50-Rif2 interaction and Rif2 inhibition of Mre11 nuclease. This residue is located near a Rad50 surface that binds Sae2 and is important in stabilizing the Mre11-Rad50 (MR) interaction in the cutting state. We propose that Sae2 stimulates Mre11 endonuclease activity by stabilizing a post-hydrolysis MR conformation that is competent for DNA cleavage, whereas Rif2 antagonizes this Sae2 function and stabilizes an endonuclease inactive MR conformation.

Asunto(s)

Roturas del ADN de Doble Cadena , Endonucleasas/metabolismo , Complejos Multiproteicos/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/metabolismo , Puntos de Control del Ciclo Celular , Daño del ADN , Endonucleasas/genética , Eliminación de Gen , Modelos Biológicos , Mutación/genética , Unión Proteica , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética

RESUMEN

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Tel1 is the ortholog of human ATM kinase and initiates a cell cycle checkpoint in response to dsDNA breaks (DSBs). Tel1ATM kinase is activated synergistically by naked dsDNA and the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2NBS1 complex (MRX). A multisubunit protein complex, which is related to human shelterin, protects telomeres from being recognized as DSBs, thereby preventing a Tel1ATM checkpoint response. However, at very short telomeres, Tel1ATM can be recruited and activated by the MRX complex, resulting in telomere elongation. Conversely, at long telomeres, Rap1-interacting-factor 2 (Rif2) is instrumental in suppressing Tel1 activity. Here, using an in vitro reconstituted Tel1 kinase activation assay, we show that Rif2 inhibits MRX-dependent Tel1 kinase activity. Rif2 discharges the ATP-bound form of Rad50, which is essential for all MRX-dependent activities. This conclusion is further strengthened by experiments with a Rad50 allosteric ATPase mutant that maps outside the conserved ATP binding pocket. We propose a model in which Rif2 attenuates Tel1 activity at telomeres by acting directly on Rad50 and discharging its activated ATP-bound state, thereby rendering the MRX complex incompetent for Tel1 activation. These findings expand our understanding of the mechanism by which Rif2 controls telomere length.

Asunto(s)

Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/metabolismo , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/metabolismo , Telómero/metabolismo

RESUMEN

It has been well documented that Tel1 positively regulates telomere-end resection by promoting Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) activity, while Rif2 negatively regulates telomere-end resection by inhibiting MRX activity. At uncapped telomeres, whether Tel1 or Rif2 plays any role remains largely unknown. In this work, we examined the roles of Tel1 and Rif2 at uncapped telomeres in yku70Δ and/or cdc13-1 mutant cells cultured at non-permissive temperature. We found that deletion of TEL1 exacerbates the temperature sensitivity of both yku70Δ and cdc13-1 cells. Further epistasis analysis indicated that MRX and Tel1 function in the same pathway in telomere protection. Consistently, TEL1 deletion increases accumulation of Exo1-dependent telomeric single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) at uncapped telomeres, which stimulates checkpoint-dependent cell cycle arrest. Moreover, TEL1 deletion in yku70Δ cells facilitates Rad51-dependent Y' recombination. In contrast, RIF2 deletion in yku70Δ cells decreases the accumulation of telomeric ssDNA after 8 h of incubation at the non-permissive temperature of 37 °C and suppresses the temperature sensitivity of yku70Δ cells, likely due to the increase of Mre11 association at telomeres. Collectively, our findings indicate that Tel1 and Rif2 regulate telomere protection at uncapped telomeres via their roles in balancing MRX activity in telomere resection.

Asunto(s)

Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/metabolismo , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/metabolismo , Telómero/metabolismo , Proteínas de Caenorhabditis elegans/genética , Proteínas de Caenorhabditis elegans/metabolismo , ADN de Cadena Simple/genética , ADN de Cadena Simple/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Endodesoxirribonucleasas/genética , Endodesoxirribonucleasas/metabolismo , Epistasis Genética , Exodesoxirribonucleasas/genética , Exodesoxirribonucleasas/metabolismo , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/genética , Mutación , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/genética , Recombinasa Rad51/genética , Recombinasa Rad51/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Telómero/genética , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/genética

RESUMEN

Telomere length homeostasis is essential for cell survival. In humans, telomeres shorten as a function of age. Short telomeres are known determinants of cell senescence and longevity. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae expresses telomerase and maintains a strict telomere length homeostasis during vegetative growth. We have previously reported that different environmental signals promote changes in telomere length in S. cerevisiae. In particular, exposure to ethanol induces an extensive telomere elongation response due to a reduction in RAP1 mRNA and protein levels. Here we show that the reduction in Rap1 protein levels disrupts the physical interaction between Rap1 and Rif1, which in turn reduces the recruitment of these two proteins to telomeres during G2-phase. Although elongation of the shortest telomeres has been shown to depend on the Rif2 telomeric protein and on the Tel1(ATM) protein kinase, we show here that the extensive telomere elongation in response to ethanol exposure is Rif1 and Mec1 (ATR)-dependent. Our results fit a model in which Rif1 and Rap1 form a complex that is loaded onto telomeres at the end of S-phase. Reduced levels of the Rap1-Rif1 complex in ethanol lead to continuous telomere elongation in a Mec1-dependent process.

Asunto(s)

Etanol/farmacología , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/metabolismo , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Homeostasis del Telómero/efectos de los fármacos , Homeostasis del Telómero/genética , Telómero/genética , Telómero/metabolismo , Ciclo Celular , Inmunoprecipitación de Cromatina , Modelos Biológicos , Mutación , Fenotipo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/efectos de los fármacos , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Estrés Fisiológico/efectos de los fármacos , Estrés Fisiológico/genética

RESUMEN

Maintenance of a minimal telomere length is essential to prevent cellular senescence. When critically short telomeres arise in the absence of telomerase, they can be repaired by homology-directed repair (HDR) to prevent premature senescence onset. It is unclear why specifically the shortest telomeres are targeted for HDR. We demonstrate that the non-coding RNA TERRA accumulates as HDR-promoting RNA-DNA hybrids (R-loops) preferentially at very short telomeres. The increased level of TERRA and R-loops, exclusively at short telomeres, is due to a local defect in RNA degradation by the Rat1 and RNase H2 nucleases, respectively. Consequently, the coordination of TERRA degradation with telomere replication is altered at shortened telomeres. R-loop persistence at short telomeres contributes to activation of the DNA damage response (DDR) and promotes recruitment of the Rad51 recombinase. Thus, the telomere length-dependent regulation of TERRA and TERRA R-loops is a critical determinant of the rate of replicative senescence.

Asunto(s)

Ciclo Celular , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/citología , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Telómero/metabolismo , Senescencia Celular , Daño del ADN , Exorribonucleasas/metabolismo , Hibridación de Ácido Nucleico , Reparación del ADN por Recombinación , Proteínas Represoras/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Telómero/química , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/metabolismo

RESUMEN

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) pose a serious threat to genome stability and cell survival. Cells possess mechanisms that recognize DSBs and promote their repair through either homologous recombination (HR) or non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). The evolutionarily conserved Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) complex plays a central role in the cellular response to DSBs, as it is implicated in controlling end resection and in maintaining the DSB ends tethered to each other. Furthermore, it is responsible for DSB signaling by activating the checkpoint kinase Tel1 that, in turn, supports MRX function in a positive feedback loop. The present review focuses mainly on recent works in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to highlight structure and regulation of MRX as well as its interplays with Tel1.

RESUMEN

The regulation of telomere length equilibrium is essential for cell growth and survival since critically short telomeres signal DNA damage and cell cycle arrest. While the broad principles of length regulation are well established, the molecular mechanism of how these steps occur is not fully understood. We mutagenized the RIF2 gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to understand how this protein blocks excess telomere elongation. We identified an N-terminal domain in Rif2 that is essential for length regulation, which we have termed BAT domain for Blocks Addition of Telomeres. Tethering this BAT domain to Rap1 blocked telomere elongation not only in rif2Δ mutants but also in rif1Δ and rap1C-terminal deletion mutants. Mutation of a single amino acid in the BAT domain, phenylalanine at position 8 to alanine, recapitulated the rif2Δ mutant phenotype. Substitution of F8 with tryptophan mimicked the wild-type phenylalanine, suggesting the aromatic amino acid represents a protein interaction site that is essential for telomere length regulation.

Asunto(s)

Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Homeostasis del Telómero/genética , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/genética , Telómero/genética , Cromosomas Fúngicos , Daño del ADN/genética , Proteínas Mitocondriales/genética , Mutación , Proteínas Represoras/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Transaminasas/genética

RESUMEN

Most human tissues express low levels of telomerase and undergo telomere shortening and eventual senescence; the resulting limitation on tissue renewal can lead to a wide range of age-dependent pathophysiologies. Increasing evidence indicates that the decline in cell division capacity in cells that lack telomerase can be influenced by numerous genetic factors. Here, we use telomerase-defective strains of budding yeast to probe whether replicative senescence can be attenuated or accelerated by defects in factors previously implicated in handling of DNA termini. We show that the MRX (Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2) complex, as well as negative (Rif2) and positive (Tel1) regulators of this complex, comprise a single pathway that promotes replicative senescence, in a manner that recapitulates how these proteins modulate resection of DNA ends. In contrast, the Rad51 recombinase, which acts downstream of the MRX complex in double-strand break (DSB) repair, regulates replicative senescence through a separate pathway operating in opposition to the MRX-Tel1-Rif2 pathway. Moreover, defects in several additional proteins implicated in DSB repair (Rif1 and Sae2) confer only transient effects during early or late stages of replicative senescence, respectively, further suggesting that a simple analogy between DSBs and eroding telomeres is incomplete. These results indicate that the replicative capacity of telomerase-defective yeast is controlled by a network comprised of multiple pathways. It is likely that telomere shortening in telomerase-depleted human cells is similarly under a complex pattern of genetic control; mechanistic understanding of this process should provide crucial information regarding how human tissues age in response to telomere erosion.

Asunto(s)

Regulación Fúngica de la Expresión Génica , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/metabolismo , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomycetales/enzimología , División Celular , Reparación del ADN , ADN de Hongos/genética , ADN de Hongos/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Endodesoxirribonucleasas/genética , Endodesoxirribonucleasas/metabolismo , Endonucleasas/genética , Endonucleasas/metabolismo , Exodesoxirribonucleasas/genética , Exodesoxirribonucleasas/metabolismo , Genotipo , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/genética , Mutación , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomycetales/genética , Saccharomycetales/crecimiento & desarrollo , Telómero/genética , Telómero/metabolismo , Acortamiento del Telómero , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/genética , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/metabolismo , Factores de Tiempo