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The objective of this review article is to systematically identify the caffeine placebo effect in sport and exercise activities. We selected randomized controlled trial studies to better understand the impact of caffeine and its placebo effect on sports performance. We extracted a set of articles that refer strictly to the topics of caffeine and its placebo effect in sport and exercise, considering the databases integrated to the Core Collection Web of Science and Scopus, as well as the registration of the documents in PubMed®, a system with a selection process aligned with the guidelines for the PRISMA methodology, establishing the eligibility criteria of the articles with the PICOS tool, to which a systematic review is applied. Finally, the results show that caffeine improves anaerobic capacity and endurance, while placebo perceived as caffeine can also increase performance by reducing pain and improving concentration. This finding underscores the influence of expectations and placebo on physical performance, suggesting that managing these expectations may be an effective strategy for improving athletic performance.

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It has been indicated that extreme sport activities result in a highly rewarding experience, despite also providing fear, stress and anxiety. Studies have related this experience to the concept of flow, a positive feeling that individuals undergo when they are completely immersed in an activity. However, little is known about the exact nature of these experiences, and, there are still no empirical results to characterize the brain dynamics during extreme sport practice. This work aimed at investigating changes in psychological responses while recording physiological (heart rate-HR, and breathing rate-BR) and neural (electroencephalographic-EEG) data of eight volunteers, during outdoors slackline walking in a mountainous environment at two different altitude conditions (1 m-low-walk- and 45 m-high-walk-from the ground). Low-walk showed a higher score on flow scale, while high-walk displayed a higher score in the negative affect aspects, which together point to some level of flow restriction during high-walk. The order of task performance was shown to be relevant for the physiological and neural variables. The brain behavior during flow, mainly considering attention networks, displayed the stimulus-driven ventral attention network-VAN, regionally prevailing (mainly at the frontal lobe), over the goal-directed dorsal attention network-DAN. Therefore, we suggest an interpretation of flow experiences as an opened attention to more changing details in the surroundings, i.e., configured as a 'task-constantly-opened-to-subtle-information experience', rather than a 'task-focused experience'.

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We were interested in micro-variations in an athlete's psychophysical state that separate peak exertion from physiological collapse. Thus, we measured perceptual acuity in runners using a classic psychophysical approach, the just noticeable difference (JND) on two standard stimuli runs at treadmill speed corresponding to 70%VO2max and 80%VO2max. Thirty-four male runners (M age = 35.26, SD = 7.33 years) first performed a maximal treadmill test to determine the speed of a standard exercise bout for the JND trials. The JND trials consisted of four 5-minute running bouts on a treadmill with 5-minute rests between bouts. For bouts 1 and 3, participants ran at the standard stimuli pace, but for bouts 2 and 4, they adjusted their speeds to achieve a level of exertion at a JND above/below the SS. They achieved differences in the final 30 seconds of the VO2 between each JND bout and the previous standard stimuli at just above (JND-A) and just below (JND-B) the JND perceived exertions. We used a Generalized Linear Model analysis to compare the JND-A and JND-B within and between ventilatory threshold groups (lower/higher) in absolute and relative VO2 and in terms of the total JND magnitude. The magnitude of JND-A was greater than that of JND-B at 70%VO2max and 80%VO2max in absolute units (70%VO2 Δ = 2.62; SE = 0.37; p < .001; 80%VO2 Δ = 1.67; SE = 0.44; p = .002) and in relative units (70%VO2max Δ = 4.70; SE = 0.66; p < .001; 80%VO2max Δ = 2.96; SE = 0.80; p = .002). The total magnitude was greater in the 70%VO2max trial than 80%VO2max in absolute units (70%VO2 M = 3.78, SE = 0.31 mL·kg-1·min-1; 80%VO2 M = 2.62, SE = 0.37 mL·kg-1·min-1; p = .020) and in relative units (70%VO2max M = 6.57, SE = 0.53%VO2max; 80%VO2max M = 4.71, SE = 0.64%VO2max; p = .030). The JND range narrowed when physiologic demand increased, for both physical (speed) and psychological (RPE) variables.

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The first experimental laboratory in psychology was founded in Leipzig (Germany), where Wilhelm Wundt mainly investigated feelings and sensations by employing experimental methods. Almost a century and half after is debut, experimental laboratories have extremely evolved in terms of apparatus, instruments, and recording techniques. Under a multiand interdisciplinary perspective, we can now better understand human cognitive and affective processes. As current zeitgeist has placed increasing emphasis upon the ecologically valid research, an "out-of-thelab" approach, integrated with both human and nonhuman research, is expected to leverage scientific advances in the field of human behavior.

El primer laboratorio experimental de psicología se fundó en Leipzig (Alemania), donde Wilhelm Wundt investigó principalmente los sentimientos y las sensaciones empleando métodos experimentales. Casi siglo y medio después de su debut, los laboratorios experimentales han evolucionado enormemente en cuanto a aparatos, instrumentos y técnicas de registro. Bajo una perspectiva multi e interdisciplinar, ahora podemos comprender mejor los procesos cognitivos y afectivos humanos. Dado que el zeitgeist actual ha puesto cada vez más énfasis en la investigación válida ecológicamente, se espera que un enfoque "fuera del laboratorio", integrado con la investigación humana y no humana, impulse los avances científicos en el campo del comportamiento humano.

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Introduction: Acoustic prepulse inhibition of the startle response (PPI) is a phenomenon characterized by the reduction in the startle reflex caused by the presence of weak and brief stimulus before an intense and sudden stimulus (pulse). These phenomena can be observed in several species, but in humans it is commonly measured by the eyeblink using electromyography. PPI works as an operational measure of sensorimotor gating, which is the ability to suppress motor responses for sensory stimulus. Healthy aging is marked by several changes in neural processing, like inhibitory functioning decline. In this line, PPI measure can be a potential biomarker for changes related to the aging process. Methods: In this research we aim to investigate if PPI is reduced with aging and if this reduction would be associated with cognitive functioning of older adults. To this aim, we compared PPI levels of older adults (over 60 years old) with PPI levels of young adults (from 18 to 28 years old). Results: With that, we found, significantly lower PPI level (F[1,25] = 7.44 p = 0.01) and lower startle amplitude startle amplitude: (U = 26.000 p = 0.001) in older adults than in young adults. However, we did not find differences in levels of habituation (T = -1.1 p = 0.28) and correlation between PPI and cognition within the sample of healthy older adults. Discussion: Our results demonstrate that aging is a factor that affects PPI and that it does not seem to predict cognition, however, future studies should explore the potential of using PPI for monitoring cognitive changes associated with techniques such as cognitive training.

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We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the effect of sleep deprivation on endurance performance, as well as possible effect-modifying factors. Searches were done in Pubmed, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus on 12 July 2022. We additionally searched the bibliographic references and citations on Google Scholar of the papers whose full text was analyzed. Eligible studies were randomized and non-randomized controlled trials that compared sleep deprivation and habitual-sleep night effects on endurance performance in healthy humans. The studies' quality was examined by the Cochrane Collaboration's risk of bias tool. We calculated the pooled standardized mean differences (pooled SMD) and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) by a random-effects model. A mixed-effects model analyzed subgroups. Thirty-one studies were analyzed (n = 478), generating 38 effect sizes in full. The overall risk of bias was low in 8% of the studies, unclear in 74%, and high in 18%. Sleep deprivation in general had a moderate negative effect on endurance performance (polled SMD [95%CI] = -0.52 [-0.67; -0.38]). Training status, sleep deprivation magnitude, assessment time, exercise mode, and endpoint type did not influence the sleep deprivation effect, whereas longer exercises (>30 min) were more affected by sleep deprivation than shorter ones (P = 0.035). Therefore, the available evidence supports that sleep deprivation's deleterious effect on endurance performance is of moderate size and depends on exercise duration. This information can be useful to estimate the performance decrement of endurance exercise practitioners under sleep deprivation in training routines and competitions.PROSPERO registration number CRD42021229717.

Sleep deprivation causes a moderate deleterious effect on endurance performance.Sleep deprivation similarly impairs endurance performance in untrained, recreationally-trained, and trained people, but its effect on well-trained and professional endurance athletes is unknown.One or more nights of partial sleep deprivation or one night of total sleep deprivation similarly compromise endurance performance. Uncertainties about the effect of more than one night of total sleep deprivation warrant more studies.Sleep deprivation impairs walking, running, and cycling endurance performance regardless of the exercise endpoint being unknown (i.e. incremental or constant load tests) or known (i.e. time trial tests) and assessment time. However, sleep deprivation causes a more deleterious effect on endurance performance in exercises lasting more than 30 min.

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The perceived exertion construct creation is a landmark in exercise physiology and sport science. Obtaining perceived exertion is relatively easy, but practitioners often neglect some critical methodological issues in its assessment. Furthermore, the perceived exertion definition, neurophysiological basis, and practical applications have evolved since the perceived exertion construct's inception. Therefore, we revisit the careful work devoted by Gunnar Borg with psychophysical methods to develop the perceived exertion construct, which resulted in the creation of two scales: the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the category-ratio 10 (CR10). We discuss a contemporary definition that considers perceived exertion as a conscious perception of how hard, heavy, and strenuous the exercise is, according to the sense of effort to command the limbs and the feeling of heavy breathing (respiratory effort). Thus, other exercise-evoked sensations would not hinder the reported perceived exertion. We then describe the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in the perceived exertion genesis during exercise, including the influence of the peripheral feedback from the skeletal muscles and the cardiorespiratory system (i.e., afferent feedback) and the influence of efferent copies from the motor command and respiratory drive (i.e., corollary discharges), as well as the interaction between them. We highlight essential details practitioners should consider when using the RPE and CR10 scales, such as the perceived exertion definition, the original scales utilization, and the descriptors anchoring process. Finally, we present how practitioners can use perceived exertion to assess cardiorespiratory fitness, individualize exercise intensity prescription, predict endurance exercise performance, and monitor athletes' responses to physical training.

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Objective: To improve the ability of psychiatry researchers to build, deploy, maintain, reproduce, and share their own psychophysiological tasks. Psychophysiological tasks are a useful tool for studying human behavior driven by mental processes such as cognitive control, reward evaluation, and learning. Neural mechanisms during behavioral tasks are often studied via simultaneous electrophysiological recordings. Popular online platforms such as Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and Prolific enable deployment of tasks to numerous participants simultaneously. However, there is currently no task-creation framework available for flexibly deploying tasks both online and during simultaneous electrophysiology. Methods: We developed a task creation template, termed Honeycomb, that standardizes best practices for building jsPsych-based tasks. Honeycomb offers continuous deployment configurations for seamless transition between use in research settings and at home. Further, we have curated a public library, termed BeeHive, of ready-to-use tasks. Results: We demonstrate the benefits of using Honeycomb tasks with a participant in an ongoing study of deep brain stimulation for obsessive compulsive disorder, who completed repeated tasks both in the clinic and at home. Conclusion: Honeycomb enables researchers to deploy tasks online, in clinic, and at home in more ecologically valid environments and during concurrent electrophysiology.

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This study provided a proof-of-concept and test-retest reliability of measures frequently used to assess a mental fatigue paradigm. After familiarization, 28 healthy men performed (40-min) the Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVP) test in a test-retest design, having mental fatigue sensation, motivation, emotional arousal, total mood disturbance, and electroencephalography (EEG) in the prefrontal cortex measured before and after the test. EEG was recorded during a 3-min rest so that the power spectral density of theta (3-7 Hz) and alpha (8-13 Hz) bands was calculated. Pre-to-post RVP test changes in psychological and physiological domains were compared (paired-T tests), and absolute (standard error of measurement (SEM) and minimal difference (MD)) and relative reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)) were calculated. The RVP test induced an increase (p < 0.05) in mental fatigue sensation (120.9% (109.4; 132.4)) and total mood disturbance (3.5% (-6.3; 13.3)), and a decrease in motivation (-7.1% (-9.2; -5.1)) and emotional arousal (-16.2% (-19.1; -13.2)). Likewise, EEG theta (59.1% (33.2; 85.0); p < 0.05), but not alpha band, increased due to RVP test. All psychophysiological responses showed poor-to-moderate relative reliability. Changes in mental fatigue sensation and motivation were higher than SEM and MD, but changes in EEG theta band were higher only than SEM. Mental fatigue sensation, motivation, and EEG theta band were sensitive to distinguish a mental fatigue paradigm despite true mental fatigue effects on theta activity may be trivial.

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The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of an audio-guided mindfulness (MF) single session on psychological and psychophysiological responses during an outdoor walking task. Twenty-four participants (12 females and 12 males; Mage  = 23.6, SD = 3.9 years) were required to walk 200 m at a pace of their choosing. Two experimental conditions (mindfulness meditation and mindlessness [ML] meditation) and a control condition (CO) were administered. Electrical activity in the brain was measured by the use of a portable electroencephalography (EEG) system during walking. Fast Fourier Transform was used to decompose the EEG samples into theta (5-7 Hz), alpha (8-14 Hz), and beta (15-29 Hz) frequencies. Brain connectivity analysis between frontal and temporo-parietal electrode sites was conducted to explore functional interactions through the use of spectral coherence. Affective and perceptual responses were measured by the use of single-item scales and questionnaires. The present findings indicate that MF was sufficiently potent to reallocate attention toward task-related thoughts, downregulate perceived activation, and enhance affective responses to a greater degree than the other two conditions. Conversely, ML was sufficient to increase the use of dissociative thoughts, make participants less aware of their physical sensations and emotions, induce a more negative affective state, and upregulate perceived activation to a greater extent than MF and CO. The brain mechanisms that underlie the effects of MF on exercise appear to be associated with the enhanced inter-hemispheric connectivity of high-frequency waves between right frontal and left temporo-parietal areas of the cortex.

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This paper aims at pointing out the contributions of Edgar Morin´s complexity theory for the study of the brain. According to Morin, the brain is a unity of multiplicities, "Unitas multiplex," given that it works through dialog and sociocultural, genetic brain domains converge within it, from which multiple ecosystem religares emerge, which turn it into the core of the phenomenal association, shaping, and reproduction. The brain is polycentric, poly-phenomenal and multidimensional; order­chaos­organization come together as a result of a recursive, recurrent, organizational operation..(AU)

Este es un artículo de reflexión que tiene como objetivo señalar los aportes de la teoría de la complejidad de Edgar Morin al estudio del cerebro. Para Morin el cerebro es unidad de multiplicidades «unitas multiplex¼ dado que, funciona dialógicamente y en él convergen dominios genético-cerebro-socioculturales, de los cuales emergen múltiples religares ecosistémicos, los cuales lo constituyen en el centro de asociación, formación y reproducción fenoménica. El cerebro es policéntrico, polifenoménico y multidimensional, en él se reúnen orden-caos-organización a partir de un funcionamiento recursivo-recurrente-organizacional..(AU)

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The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) can be used to monitor the exercise intensity during laboratory and specific tests, training sessions, and to estimate the internal training load of the athletes. The aim of the present study was to develop and validate a specific pictorial perceived exertion scale for soccer players (indoor, field, and beach soccer) called GOAL Scale. The pictorial GOAL Scale (six drawings; 1 "low exertion" to 6 "exhaustion") was validated for twenty under-17 soccer players (16.4 ± 0.68 years; 175.4 ± 9 cm; 66.4 ± 7.7 kg; % fat mass 12.4 ± 3.3). In the validation phase, the athletes were evaluated in a progressive protocol involving stimuluses of 3 min with 1 min for the rest into the stages until the voluntary exhaustion in Maximal Cardiopulmonary Effort Test (MCET), and in the Yo Yo Intermittent Recovery Test - Level 1 (Yo-Yo). The RPE identified by the GOL Scale, by the Borg Scale 6 - 20 and by the Cavasini Scale, as well as the heart rate (HR), perceptual of the heart rate (%HRmax) and the blood lactate concentration ([La]) were immediately evaluated after each stage of both tests. Spearman's correlation coefficient (p < 0.05) was used. Construct scale validity was examined by regressing GOAL Scale against Borg Scale 6 - 20 and Cavasini Scale and concurrent scale validity was investigated by regressing GOAL Scale against HR, beats/min and blood lactate concentration (mmol/L) during two progressive tests. There was a significant correlation values of the GOAL Scale with Borg Scale (r = 0.93; r = 0.88), Cavasini Scale (r = 0.91; r = 0.90), %HRmax (r = 0.91; r = 0,86), HR (r = 0.87; r = 0.83) and lactate (r = 0.68; r = 0.83) during tests (Maximal Incremental Cardiopulmonary Test and Yo-Yo test, respectively). The results evidenced concurrent and construct validity of the GOAL Scale across a wide range of exercise intensity. The absence of verbal anchors makes the use of this instrument to soccer, futsal and beach soccer athletes of different languages and different literacy levels possible.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Reiki (as well as the effectiveness of Physical Activities) on relatively healthy individuals (not hospital patients), members of a sample of 338 volunteers, and to confirm whether practicing Reiki contributes to psycho-emotional stabilization, having a beneficial impact on mood and emotional wellbeing. For the first time, a positive confirmation of Reiki was carried out in Ukraine. The respondents were divided into two main groups: non-Reikists (individuals who did not practice Reiki) and Reikists (individuals who practiced or taught Reiki). It was found that, in comparison with non-Reikists, the results obtained by Reikists were twice as good, showing higher levels of emotional comfort, less anxiety/dissatisfaction, and more optimism, energy and self-confidence. At that, senior pupils and university students of psychology performed worse. This study confirms that the practice of Reiki is a quickly healing, stimulating, long-term, and cost-effective technique, positively influencing to positive well-being, mood and psychosomatic responses.

O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar a eficácia do Reiki (assim como da atividade física) para pessoas relativamente saudáveis (não pacientes hospitalares) numa amostra de 338 participantes e confirmar que a prática do Reiki contribui para a estabilização psicoemocional, tem um efeito benéfico no humor e bem-estar. Pela primeira vez, uma confirmação positiva do Reiki foi realizada na Ucrânia. Os entrevistados foram divididos em dois grupos principais: não Reikistas (que não praticavam Reiki) e Reikistas (que praticavam ou ensinavam métodos de Reiki a outros). Foi descoberto que, sendo comparados aos não-Reikistas, os resultados dos Reikistas foram duas vezes melhores, revelando um nível mais altodo conforto emocional, menos ansiedade/insatisfação e mais otimismo, energia e autoconfiança. Ao mesmo tempo, alunos dos últimos anos de escolaridade assim como estudantes de especialidades psicológicas apresentaram os piores resultados. Este estudo confirma que a prática de Reiki é um método de recuperação rápida, estimulante, de longo prazo e economicamente eficaz que tem influência positiva no bem-estar, o humor e o estado psicossomático de uma pessoa.

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The aim of this study was to compare a reconfigurable mobile electroencephalography (EEG) system (M-EMOTIV) based on the Emotiv Epoc® (which has the ability to record up to 14 electrode sites in the 10/20 International System) and a commercial, clinical-grade EEG system (Neuronic MEDICID-05®), and then validate the rationale and accuracy of recordings obtained with the prototype proposed. In this approach, an Emotiv Epoc® was modified to enable it to record in the parieto-central area. All subjects (15 healthy individuals) performed a visual oddball task while connected to both devices to obtain electrophysiological data and behavioral responses for comparative analysis. A Pearson's correlation analysis revealed a good between-devices correlation with respect to electrophysiological measures. The present study not only corroborates previous reports on the ability of the Emotiv Epoc® to suitably record EEG data but presents an alternative device that allows the study of a wide range of psychophysiological experiments with simultaneous behavioral and mobile EEG recordings.

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Abstract Introduction Little is known about how metabolic comorbidity affects stress response during breast cancer (BRCa) after a recent diagnosis. Objective To evaluate the physiological and psychological differences between the BRCa-RSxM groups and those with BRCa alone, and the influence of psychological variables and comorbidity in terms of stress response. Method Comparative non-experimental causal-descriptive study. Fifty patients recently diagnosed with BRCa (25 with BRCa and 25 with BRCa-RSxM) in a convenience sample participated. Frontal muscle activity and skin conductance were recorded in response to stressful conditions. Quality of life, perceived stress, and coping strategies scales were used. Results The presence of comorbidity (p = .001; p = .02), perceived stress (p = .004; p = .03), and social quality of life (p = .01; p = .01) influenced muscle activation and conductance during the emotional stressor (ES). Putting the stressful situation into perspective as a cognitive coping strategy was related to a decrease in activation (p = .04). An increase in physiological activation during the cognitive stressor (CS) was influenced by comorbidity (p = .05) and quality of social life (p = .01; p = .01). In turn, a decrease was influenced by the increase in age (p = .02). Discussion Physiological vulnerability, coping strategies (behavioral and cognitive), and prior learning influenced the resulting reaction during the stressful situation. Conclusion A metabolic disease, as a prelude to an oncological, may cause physiological vulnerability to respond adequately to stressful conditions.

Resumen Introducción Es poco lo que se sabe acerca de cómo afecta a una comorbilidad metabólica a la respuesta al estrés durante el cáncer de mama (CaMa) tras un diagnóstico reciente Objetivo Evaluar las diferencias fisiológicas y psicológicas entre los grupos de CaMa-RSxM y sólo con CaMa, y la influencia de las variables psicológicas y la comorbilidad en cuanto a la respuesta al estrés. Método Estudio no experimental descriptivo-causal comparativo. Participaron 50 pacientes con diagnóstico reciente de CaMa (25 en CaMa y 25 en CaMa-RSxM) en un muestreo por conveniencia. Se registraron la actividad muscular frontal y la conductancia de la piel frente a condiciones estresantes. Se aplicaron escalas de calidad de vida, estrés percibido y estrategias de afrontamiento. Resultados La presencia de la comorbilidad (p = .001; p = .02), estrés percibido (p = .004; p = .03) y la calidad de vida social (p = .01; p = .01) influyeron en la activación muscular y la conductancia durante el estresor emocional (EE). Poner en perspectiva la situación estresante como estrategia cognitiva de afrontamiento se relacionó con una disminución de la activación (p = .04). El aumento de activación fisiológica durante el estresor cognitivo (EC) estuvo influido por la comorbilidad (p = .05) y la calidad de vida social (p = .01; p = .01); a su vez, la disminución lo estuvo por el aumento en los años de edad (p = .02). Discusión La vulnerabilidad fisiológica, las estrategias de afrontamiento (conductuales y cognitivas) y el aprendizaje previo influyeron en la reacción resultante surgida durante la situación estresante. Conclusión Una enfermedad metabólica, como antesala de una oncológica, puede ocasionar vulnerabilidad fisiológica para responder adecuadamente a condiciones estresantes.

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RESUMEN Introducción: las exigencias académicas se comportan como estresores conducentes al estrés estudiantil, se muestra una experiencia. Objetivo: evaluar la posible asociación entre niveles de estrés académico y resultados docentes en estudiantes del segundo ciclo de medicina de la Universidad Católica de Cuenca - Sede Azogues. Métodos: se realizó un estudio transversal que incluyó a 72 alumnos de ambos géneros. Se aplicó el inventario SISCO para determinar niveles de estrés. El rendimiento docente normal o bajo se estableció por el promedio final de puntos del total de asignaturas. Las diferencias y asociaciones entre variables se determinaron por medio del test de proporciones y X2, respectivamente. Resultados: entre géneros no existieron diferencias significativas en el rendimiento docente ni por niveles de estrés. El nivel de estrés alto predominó significativamente entre el total de estudiantes respecto al bajo y en el género femenino. Los niveles de estrés y de rendimiento docente no se asociaron al género. Los estudiantes con rendimiento docente normal se encontraron en porcentajes más altos, mientras que aquellos con nivel de estrés académico alto, en un porcentaje significativamente superior (p ≤ 0,05) tuvieron rendimiento docente bajo. Los niveles de estrés se asociaron significativamente al rendimiento docente. Conclusiones: entre los estudiantes participantes se manifiestan altos niveles de estrés académico que evidencian una influencia negativa en su rendimiento docente.

ABSTRACT Introduction: academic demands behave like stressors leading to student stress, an experience is shown. Objective: to evaluate the possible association between levels of academic stress and learning results in students of the second academic year of medicine at Cuenca Catholic University - Azogues Venue. Methods: a cross-sectional study was carried out involving 72 students of both genders. The SISCO inventory was applied to determine academic stress levels. Normal or low learning performance was established by the final average of points of the total number of subjects. Differences and associations between variables were determined by means of the proportions test and X2, respectively. Results: there were no significant differences between genders in learning performance or levels of academic stress. High levels of stress significantly predominated among the total number of students with respect to low level and in the female gender. Levels of academic stress and learning performance were not associated with gender. Students with normal learning performance were found in higher percentages, while those with high levels of academic stress had significantly higher percentages (p ≤ 0.05), who showed low learning performance. Stress levels were significantly associated with learning performance. Conclusions: high levels of academic stress were found among the students participating in this study, which evidenced a negative influence on their learning performance.

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Los procedimientos dentales implican una alta situación de estrés y ansiedad. Objetivos: Verificar una asociación de ansiedad dental medida por la Escala de ansiedad dental modificada (EADM), con variaciones de los niveles de cortisol salival (sC) y de α-amilasa (sAA) en pacientes sometidos a cirugía del tercer molar. Materiales y métodos: Treinta y dos pacientes fueron seleccionados en la Clínica Odontológica de la Facultad de Odontología de la Universidad de São Paulo. EADM se logró en la primera consulta. Se recogieron muestras de saliva durante la entrevista, el día de la cirugía y las visitas de seguimiento postoperatorio a intervalos de una semana a la misma hora. Tres pacientes clasificados como ansiosos y cuatro que informaron un evento traumático previo se reunieron en un grupo. Resultados: No hubo diferencia entre este grupo y el grupo no ansioso al comparar el sexo y el dolor. Los niveles de sC (KW, p = 0,65) y sAA (KW, p = 0,69) en tres días no fueron diferentes en relación con el género. Los niveles de sAA aumentaron en la cirugía de día al comparar pacientes ansiosos / con eventos y no ansiosos, mientras que los niveles de sC fueron más altos durante la entrevista y el seguimiento postoperatorio. Conclusión: La ansiedad dental y el evento traumático dental previo mostraron una producción marcada de niveles de sC y sAA en relación con sus contrapartes en esta situación. La relación subjetiva y objetiva de ansiedad dental necesita más investigaciones.

Dental procedures involve high situation of stress and anxiety. Objectives: To verify an association of dental anxiety mea-sured by Modified Dental Anxiety Scale (MDAS), with variations of salivary cortisol (sC) and salivary α-amylase (sAA) levels in patients undergoing third molar surgery. Materials and Methods: Thirty two patients were selected in Clínica Odontológica of Faculdade de Odontologia, Universidade de São Paulo. MDAS was accomplished in first query. Saliva samples were collected during interview, on surgery day and postoperative follow-up visits at intervals of one week at the same hour. Three patients classified as anxious, and four who reported prior traumatic event were gathered in a group. Re-sults: There was no difference between this group and the non-anxious group when comparing gender and pain. sC levels (KW, p = 0.65) and sAA (KW, p = 0.69) on three days weren't different in relation to gender. Levels of sAA increased in day surgery when comparing anxious/ event and non-anxious patients, while sC levels were higher during interview and postoperative follow up. Conclusion: Dental anxiety and previous dental traumatic event showed marked production of sC and sAA levels in relation to their counterparts in this situation. Subjective and objective dental anxiety relationship needs further investigations.

Procedimentos odontológicos envolvem uma alta situação de estresse e ansiedade. Objetivos: Verificar a associação da ansiedade odontológica medida pela Escala Modificada de Ansiedade Dental (EMAD), com variações dos níveis de cortisol salivar (sC) e α-amilase salivar (sAA) em pacientes submetidos à cirurgia de terceiro molar. Materiais e Métodos: Trinta e dois pacientes foram selecionados na Clínica Odontológica da Faculdade de Odontologia da Universidade de São Paulo. O EMAD foi realizado na primeira consulta. As amostras de saliva foram coletadas durante a entrevista, no dia da cirurgia e no acompanhamento pós-operatório em intervalos de uma semana na mesma hora. Três pacientes classificados como ansiosos e quatro que relataram evento traumático prévio foram reunidos em um grupo. Resultados: Não houve diferença entre esse grupo e o grupo não ansioso ao comparar sexo e dor. Os níveis sC (KW, p = 0,65) e sAA (KW, p = 0,69) em três dias não diferiram em relação ao sexo. Os níveis de sAA aumentaram em cirurgias diurnas quando comparados pacientes ansiosos / evento e não ansiosos, enquanto os níveis sC foram maiores durante a entrevista e acompanhamento pós-opera-tório. Conclusão: A ansiedade odontológica e o evento traumático dentário prévio mostraram marcada produção de níveis de sC e sAA em relação a suas contrapartes nessa situação. Relação de ansiedade dental subjetiva e objetiva precisa de mais investigações.

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The present study attempts to better identify the neurophysiological changes occurring during flow experience and how this can be related to the mobilization of attentional resources. Self-reports of flow (using a flow feelings scale) and attention (using thought probes), autonomic activity (heart rate, heart rate variability, and breathing rate), and cerebral oxygenation (using near-infrared spectroscopy) in two regions of the frontoparietal attention network (right lateral frontal cortex and right inferior parietal lobe) were measured during the practice of two simple video games (Tetris and Pong) played at different difficulty conditions (easy, optimal, hard, or self-selected). Our results indicated that an optimal level of difficulty, compared with an easy or hard level of difficulty led to greater flow feelings and a higher concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin in the regions of the frontoparietal network. The self-selected, named autonomy condition did not lead to more flow feelings than the optimal condition; however, the autonomy condition led to greater sympathetic activity (reduced heart rate variability and greater breathing rate) and higher activation of the frontoparietal regions. Our study suggests that flow feelings are highly connected to the mobilization of attentional resources, and all the more in a condition that promotes individuals' choice and autonomy.

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Immersive environments induced by audiovisual stimuli are hypothesised to facilitate the control of movements and ameliorate fatigue-related symptoms during exercise. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of pleasant and unpleasant audiovisual stimuli on perceptual and psychophysiological responses during moderate-intensity exercises performed on an electromagnetically braked cycle ergometer. Twenty young adults were administered three experimental conditions in a randomised and counterbalanced order: unpleasant stimulus (US; e.g. images depicting laboured breathing); pleasant stimulus (PS; e.g. images depicting pleasant emotions); and neutral stimulus (NS; e.g. neutral facial expressions). The exercise had 10 min of duration (2 min of warm-up + 6 min of exercise + 2 min of warm-down). During all conditions, the rate of perceived exertion and heart rate variability were monitored to further understanding of the moderating influence of audiovisual stimuli on perceptual and psychophysiological responses, respectively. The results of the present study indicate that PS ameliorated fatigue-related symptoms and reduced the physiological stress imposed by the exercise bout. Conversely, US increased the global activity of the autonomic nervous system and increased exertional responses to a greater degree when compared to PS. Accordingly, audiovisual stimuli appear to induce a psychophysiological response in which individuals visualise themselves within the story presented in the video. In such instances, individuals appear to copy the behaviour observed in the videos as if the situation was real. This mirroring mechanism has the potential to up-/down-regulate the cardiac work as if in fact the exercise intensities were different in each condition.

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RESUMO Introdução: O uso de arma de fogo por policiais militares normalmente é precedido por perseguição a pé, e as alterações fisiológicas produzidas pelo esforço físico podem afetar o desempenho do tiro. Objetivo: Verificar o efeito do esforço físico sobre o desempenho de tiro em policiais militares. Métodos: A amostra foi constituída por 15 homens (34,1 ± 5,4 anos; 81,4 ± 8,8 kg; 171,3 ± 5,6 cm; 27,7 ± 2,3 kg/m²; 44,9 ± 4,0 ml.kg-1.min-1) do batalhão de choque da polícia militar. Na primeira sessão, os participantes realizaram um teste de esforço máximo em esteira no qual se mediu o consumo pico de oxigênio (VO2pico). Na segunda sessão, foi avaliado o desempenho (pontuação) e tempo de tiro pré e pós-esforço físico e o tempo gasto no circuito de corrida com obstáculos (297 m). O índice de eficiência de tiro foi calculado pela razão entre a pontuação total e tempo de execução de tiro. O teste de Shapiro-Wilk confirmou a normalidade da distribuição dos dados. Utilizou-se o teste t pareado para comparação das variáveis desfecho pré e pós-esforço e o coeficiente de correlação de Pearson. Resultados: O tempo para completar o percurso de corrida foi 75,3 ± 4,4 s. O desempenho (20,4 ± 11,4 vs. 17,6 ± 9,3 pontos), tempo (4,48 ± 1,1 vs. 4,23 ± 0,9 s) e eficiência de tiro (4,69 ± 2,7 vs. 4,35 ± 2,7 pts./s) não apresentaram diferenças significativas (P > 0,2). Além disso, detectou-se uma correlação entre o VO2pico e o tempo de execução da corrida (r = -0,64; P = 0,01), mas não com o desempenho de tiro (P > 0,05). Conclusão: O esforço físico não afeta o desempenho de tiro de policiais militares. Apesar de o nível de aptidão aeróbica não ser associado ao desempenho de tiro, foi associado ao desempenho físico realizado previamente aos disparos.

ABSTRACT Introduction: The use of firearms by military police officers is usually preceded by pursuit on foot, and the physiological changes produced by physical exertion may affect shooting performance. Objective: To verify the effect of physical effort on shooting performance in military police officers. Methods: The sample consisted of 15 men (34.1 ± 5.4 years; 81.4 ± 8.8 kg; 171.3 ± 5.6 cm; 27.7 ± 2.3 kg/m²; 44.9 ± 4.0 ml.kg-1.min-1) of the riot police. In the first session, the subjects performed a maximal treadmill stress test in which the peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak) was measured. In the second session, shooting performance (score) and shooting time were measured pre and post-exercise, as well as the time spent to complete a circuit of obstacle running (297 m). Shooting efficiency index was calculated as the ratio between total score and shooting time. The Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed the normal distribution of the data. A paired t-test was used to compare the post-exertion outcomes variables as well as the Pearson correlation coefficient. Results: The time to complete the running circuit was 75.3 ± 4.4 s. Shooting performance (20.4 ± 11.4 vs. 17.6 ± 9.3 points), time (4.48 ± 1.1 vs. 4.23 ± 0.9 s), and efficiency (4.69 ± 2.7 vs. 4.35 ± 2.7 pts/s) did not present significant differences (P>0.2). Additionally, a correlation was detected between VO2peak and running time (r = -0.64; P=0.01), but not with shooting performance (P>0.05). Conclusion: Physical exertion does not affect shooting performance of military police officers. Although the level of aerobic fitness was not associated with shooting performance, it was associated with physical performance prior to shooting.

RESUMEN Introducción: El uso de armas de fuego por los agentes de la policía militar suele ir precedido de persecución a pie, y los cambios fisiológicos inducidos por el esfuerzo físico pueden afectar el rendimiento de disparo. Objetivo: Determinar el efecto del esfuerzo físico en la ejecución del tiro de la policía militar. Métodos: La muestra consistió en 15 hombres (34,1 ± 5,4 años; 81,4 ± 8,8 kg; 171,3 ± 5,6 cm; 27,7 ± 2 3 kg/m²; 44,9 ± 4,0 ml.kg-1.min-1), del batallón antidisturbios de la policía militar. En la primera sesión, los participantes realizaron una prueba de esfuerzo máximo en una cinta rodante en la que se evaluó el pico de consumo de oxígeno (VO2pico). En la segunda sesión se evaluaron el rendimiento (puntuación) y el tiempo de disparo antes y después del esfuerzo físico y el tiempo trascurrido en el circuito de carrera con obstáculos (297 m). El índice de eficiencia de disparo se calculó como la relación entre la puntuación total y el tiempo de ejecución del tiro. La prueba de Shapiro-Wilk confirmó la distribución normal de los datos. Se utilizó la prueba t pareada para la comparación de las variables pre y post-esfuerzo y el coeficiente de correlación de Pearson. Resultados: El tiempo para completar el curso de la carrera fue de 75,3 ± 4,4 s. El rendimiento (20,4 ± 11,4 vs. 17,6 ± 9,3 puntos), el tiempo (4,48 ± 1,1 vs. 4,23 ± 0,9 s) y la eficiencia de disparo (4,69 ± 2,7 vs. 4,35 ± 2,7 pts./s) no mostraron diferencias significativas (P > 0,2). Por otra parte, hemos detectado una correlación entre VO2pico y el tiempo para completar el circuito de la carrera (r = -0,64; p = 0,01), pero no con el rendimiento de disparo (P > 0,05). Conclusión: El esfuerzo físico no afecta el rendimiento de tiro en los policías militares. Aunque el nivel de la capacidad aeróbica no esté asociado con el rendimiento de tiro, se asoció con el rendimiento físico antes de disparar.