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Nowadays, unprecedented health challenges are urging novel solutions to address antimicrobial resistance as multidrug-resistant strains of bacteria, yeasts and moulds are emerging. Such microorganisms can cause food and feed spoilage, food poisoning and even more severe diseases, resulting in human death. In order to overcome this phenomenon, it is essential to identify novel antimicrobials that are naturally occurring, biologically effective and increasingly safe for human use. The development of gemmotherapy extracts (GTEs) using plant parts such as buds and young shoots has emerged as a novel approach to treat/prevent human conditions due to their associated antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and/or antimicrobial properties that all require careful evaluations. Seven GTEs obtained from plant species like the olive (Olea europaea L.), almond (Prunus amygdalus L.), black mulberry (Morus nigra L.), walnut (Juglans regia L.), blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L.), blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) were tested for their antimicrobial efficiency via agar diffusion and microbroth dilution methods. The antimicrobial activity was assessed for eight bacterial (Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica, Proteus vulgaris, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Listeria monocytogenes), five moulds (Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium expansum) and one yeast strain (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). The agar diffusion method revealed the blackberry GTE as the most effective since it inhibited the growth of three bacterial, four moulds and one yeast species, having considered the total number of affected microorganism species. Next to the blackberry, the olive GTE appeared to be the second most efficient, suppressing five bacterial strains but no moulds or yeasts. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were then determined for each GTE and the microorganisms tested. Noticeably, the olive GTE appeared to feature the strongest bacteriostatic and bactericidal outcome, displaying specificity for S. aureus, E. faecalis and L. monocytogenes. The other GTEs, such as blueberry, walnut, black mulberry and almond (the list indicates relative strength), were more effective at suppressing microbial growth than inducing microbial death. However, some species specificities were also evident, while the blackcurrant GTE had no significant antimicrobial activity. Having seen the antimicrobial properties of the analysed GTEs, especially the olive and black mulberry GTEs, these could be envisioned as potential antimicrobials that might enhance antibiotic therapies efficiency, while the blackberry GTE would act as an antifungal agent. Some of the GTE mixtures analysed have shown interesting antimicrobial synergies, and all the antimicrobial effects observed argue for extending these studies to include pathological microorganisms.

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The Expert Panel for Cosmetic Ingredient Safety reviewed updated information that has become available since their original assessment from 1983, along with updated information regarding product types, and frequency and concentrations of use, and reaffirmed their original conclusion that Prunus Amygdalus Dulcis (Sweet Almond) Seed Meal is safe for topical application to humans in the practices of use and concentration as described in this report.

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The extracts of whole plants or specific organs from different plant species are gaining increasing attention for their phytotherapy applications. Accordingly, we prepared standardized gemmotherapy extracts (GTEs) from young shoots/buds of olive (Olea europaea), sweet almond (Prunus amygdalus), and black mulberry (Morus nigra), and analyzed the corresponding phytonutrient profiles. We identified 42, 103, and 109 phytonutrients in the olive, almond, and black mulberry GTEs, respectively, containing amino acids, vitamins, polyphenols, flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids, iridoids, carboxylic acids, lignans, terpenoids, and others. In order to assess the physiological effects generated by the GTEs, we developed a translational nutrition model based on Drosophila melanogaster and Cyprinus carpio. The results indicate that GTEs could influence, to a variable extent, viability and ATP synthesis, even though both are dependent on the specific carbohydrate load of the applied diet and the amino acid and polyphenol pools provided by the GTEs. It seems, therefore, likely that the complex chemical composition of the GTEs offers nutritional properties that cannot be separated from the health-promoting mechanisms that ultimately increase viability and survival. Such an approach sets the paves the way for the nutritional genomic descriptions regarding GTE-associated health-promoting effects.

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Polyphenol extracts derived from plants are expected to have enhanced osteoblast proliferation and differentiation ability, which has gained much attention in tissue engineering applications. Herein, for the first time, we investigate the effects of Prunus amygdalus amara (bitter almond) (BA) extract loaded on poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL)/gelatin (Gt) nanofibrous scaffolds on the osteoblast differentiation of human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). In this regard, BA (0, 5, 10, and 15% wt)-loaded PCL/Gt nanofibrous scaffolds were prepared by electrospinning with fiber diameters in the range of around 237-276 nm. Morphology, composition, porosity, hydrophilicity, and mechanical properties of the scaffolds were examined by FESEM, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, BET, contact angle, and tensile tests, respectively. It was found that the addition of BA improved the tensile strength (up to 6.1 times), Young's modulus (up to 3 times), and strain at break (up to 3.2 times) compared to the neat PCL/Gt nanofibers. Evaluations of cell attachment, spreading, and proliferation were done by FESEM observation and MTT assay. Cytocompatibility studies support the biocompatible nature of BA loaded PCL/Gt scaffolds and free BA by demonstrating cell viability of more than 100% in all groups. The results of alkaline phosphatase activity and Alizarin Red assay revealed that osteogenic activity levels of BA loaded PCL/Gt scaffolds and free BA were significantly increased compared to the control group (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001). QRT-PCR results demonstrated that BA loaded PCL/Gt scaffolds and free BA led to a significant increase in osteoblast differentiation of DPSCs through the upregulation of osteogenic related genes compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Based on results, incorporation of BA extract in PCL/Gt scaffolds exhibited synergistic effects on the adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenesis differentiation of hDPSCs and was therefore assumed to be a favorable scaffold for bone tissue engineering applications.

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Maximizing water use efficiency, yield, and plant survival under drought is a relevant research issue for almond-tree-growing areas worldwide. The intraspecific diversity of this species may constitute a valuable resource to address the resilience and productivity challenges that climate change poses to crop sustainability. A comparative evaluation of physiological and productive performance of four almond varieties: 'Arrubia', 'Cossu', 'Texas', and 'Tuono', field-grown in Sardinia, Italy, was performed. A great variability in the plasticity to cope with soil water scarcity and a diverse capacity to adapt to drought and heat stresses during fruit development were highlighted. The two Sardinian varieties, Arrubia and Cossu, showed differences in water stress tolerance, photosynthetic and photochemical activity, and crop yield. 'Arrubia' and 'Texas' showed greater physiological acclimation to water stress while maintaining higher yields, as compared to the self-fertile 'Tuono'. The important role of crop load and specific anatomical traits affecting leaf hydraulic conductance and leaf gas exchanges efficiency (i.e., dominant shoot type, leaf size and roughness) was evidenced. The study highlights the importance of characterizing the relationships among almond cultivar traits that affect plant performance under drought in order to better assist planting choices and orchard irrigation management for given environmental contexts.

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Blending Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) is a promising strategy to enhance the properties of biodegradable materials. However, these compounds are thermodynamically immiscible and, consequently, compatibilization is required during polymer blending. Reinforced biocomposites can be obtained by adding agricultural wastes generated by industries which are forced to consider waste treatment methods to prevent environmental concerns. Novel PCL/PLA blends were proposed based on the addition of 10 wt.% almond shell (AS) waste combined with 3 wt.% glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) as a compatibilizer. Different PCL-, PLA-, and PCL/PLA-based blends at different percentages (75:25, 50:50, 25:75, 15:85) added with GMA and AS were obtained. The color results highlighted the lower transparency and brownish tone of the studied formulations after the addition of AS. The addition of PCL provided a positive effect on PLA's ductility due to its intrinsically higher flexibility. The combination of GMA and AS improved the mechanical properties of PCL, PLA, and 50:50 controls by reducing yield strength, yield strength at break, and elongation at break values. The 75:25_GMA_AS formulation showed a homogeneous visual appearance, low transparency, and desirable mechanical properties for rigid food packaging applications, reducing the final material cost through the revalorization of AS.

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This work proposes the revalorization of almond shell (AS) wastes as an active additive for food packaging applications. A new microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method to obtain extracts rich in polyphenolic compounds with high antioxidant capacity was optimized. An experimental design to optimize the MAE procedure through response surface methodology (RSM) using a Box-Behnken design was proposed. The effects of extraction temperature, irradiation time, ethanol:water concentration, and solvent pH at three levels were evaluated in terms of total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays). The optimal conditions found were 57 min, 80 °C, pH 8, and 70% (v/v) ethanol. Optimized MAE extracts showed low soluble protein content (0.43 mg BSA g-1) and were rich in TPC (5.64 mg GAE g-1), flavonoids (1.42 mg CE g-1), and polysaccharides (1.59 mg glucose g-1), with good antioxidant capacity (2.82 mg AAE acid g-1). These results suggest the potential application of these extracts in the food industry as active additives. This strategy opens new pathways to valorize almond shell residues, contributing to the circular economy.

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Almond (Prunus amygdalus) is one of the most common tree nuts on a worldwide basis. This nut is highly regarded in the food and cosmetic industries. However, for all these applications, almonds are used without their shell protection, which is industrially removed contributing approximately 35-75% of the total fruit weight. This residue is normally incinerated or dumped, causing several environmental problems. In this study, a novel cellulose nanocrystal (CNCs) extraction procedure from almond shell (AS) waste by using microwave-assisted extraction was developed and compared with the conventional approach. A three-factor, three-level Box-Behnken design with five central points was used to evaluate the influence of extraction temperature, irradiation time, and NaOH concentration during the alkalization stage in crystallinity index (CI) values. A similar CI value (55.9 ± 0.7%) was obtained for the MAE process, comprising only three stages, compared with the conventional optimized procedure (55.5 ± 1.0%) with five stages. As a result, a greener and more environmentally friendly CNC extraction protocol was developed with a reduction in time, solvent, and energy consumption. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra, X-ray diffractogram (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images, and thermal stability studies of samples confirmed the removal of non-cellulosic components after the chemical treatments. TEM images revealed a spherical shape of CNCs with an average size of 21 ± 6 nm, showing great potential to be used in food packaging, biological, medical, and photoelectric materials. This study successfully applied MAE for the extraction of spherical-shaped CNCs from AS with several advantages compared with the conventional procedure, reducing costs for industry.

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Prunus amygdalus (PA) is a popular invasive seed utilized in the management of diabetes in Jammu and Kashmir, India. The objective of the current study was to scrutinize the antidiabetic effect of Prunus amygdalus (PA) against Streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats and explore the possible mechanism of action at cellular and sub-cellular levels. Box Benkan Design (BBD) was performed to determine the effect of PA powder to methanol, extraction time and extraction temperature on DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging activity of decoction. In-silico study was performed on GLUT1 (5EQG) and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) (2G63) protein. Type II diabetes mellitus was initiated by single intra-peritoneal injection of STZ. The Blood Glucose Level (BGL) and body weight were estimated at regular interval of time. The different biochemical parameters such as hepatic, antioxidant, and lipid parameters were estimated. At end of the study, pancreas was used for histopathological observation. The variation in DPPH antiradical scavenging activity 40.0-90.0% and ABTS antiradical scavenging activity 34-82%, were estimated respectively. STZ induced DM rats showed increased BGL at end of the experimental study. PA treatment significantly (p < 0.001) down-regulated the BGL level. PA significantly (p < 0.001) altered the biochemical, hepatic and antioxidant parameters in a dose-dependent manner. Histopathological examination demonstrated the constructive mass of ß-cells in pancreas. Overall, the current study indicates that the PA treatment down-regulated the hyperglycemic, oxidative stress and hyperlipidaemia in diabetic rats, due to inhibition of enzymes or amelioration of oxidative stress. [Formula: see text] Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

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Bitterness in almonds is controlled by a single gene (Sk dominant for sweet kernel, sk recessive for bitter kernel) and the proportions of the offspring genotypes (SkSk, Sksk, sksk) depend on the progenitors' genotype. Currently, the latter is deduced after crossing by recording the phenotype of their descendants through kernel tasting. Chemical markers to early identify parental genotypes related to bitter traits can significantly enhance the efficiency of almond breeding programs. On this basis, volatile metabolites related to almond bitterness were investigated by Solid Phase Microextraction-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry coupled to univariate and multivariate statistics on 244 homo- and heterozygous samples from 42 different cultivars. This study evidenced the association between sweet almonds' genotype and some volatile metabolites, in particular benzaldehyde, and provided for the first time chemical markers to discriminate between homo- and heterozygous sweet almond genotypes. Furthermore, a multivariate approach based on independent variables was developed to increase the reliability of almond classification. The Partial Least Square-Discriminant Analysis classification model built with selected volatile metabolites that showed discrimination capacity allowed a 98.0% correct classification. The metabolites identified, in particular benzaldehyde, become suitable markers for the early genotype identification in almonds, while a DNA molecular marker is not yet available.

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AIM: The present study aimed to examine the effects of sweet almond (Prunus amygdalus) suspension (SAS) on the measurements of blood biochemical parameters in male albino mice, in which hyperlipidemia was induced experimentally. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seventy male albino mice were divided randomly into seven groups (10 mice/group). The first group was the untreated control group (negative control). The second group comprised hyperlipidemic mice that did not receive SAS treatment (positive control). The other five groups consisted of hyperlipidemic mice that were orally administered five different doses of SAS (285, 571, 857, 1128, and 1428 mg/kg body weight). Hyperlipidemia was induced in mice by adding 1% cholesterol to the diet along with 0.5% H2O2 to the drinking water, with ad libitum access to both food and water for 60 consecutive days. Prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, clotting time, and platelet count were measured. Serum lipid profile (total cholesterol [TC], triacylglycerol [TAG], low-density lipoprotein cholesterol [LDL-C], very LDL-C [VLDL-C], and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C]) was also determined. RESULTS: Prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, and clotting time significantly increased only in groups treated with SAS, especially at the dosage of 1428 mg/kg compared with the positive control group. Blood platelet count significantly decreased in SAS-treated groups. The serum levels of TC, TAG, LDL-C, and VLDL-C in the SAS-treated groups (857, 1128, and 1428 mg/kg) significantly decreased, whereas the serum level of HDL-C significantly increased compared with that of the positive control group. CONCLUSION: SAS administered orally at 1428 mg/kg body weight was the dose that most significantly decreased platelet count and serum levels of TC, TAG, LDL-C, and VLDL-C and increased prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, and clotting time as well as serum level of HDL-C in experimentally induced hyperlipidemic mice.

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Prunus amygdalus is used in the folk medicine that proved the interest of this plant which cures many diseases. Many researchers are interested to valorize almond waste (hull and shell) and to evaluate their biological and pharmacological activities. In this work, polysaccharides from Prunus amygdalus shell were extracted sequentially by water, ammonium oxalate and hydrochloric acid. The monosaccharide composition of polysaccharides fractions was performed by GC-MS. Water-soluble polysaccharide was found to be the most effective extracting agent with an extracted yield of 9%. The acid Soluble Polysaccharides (ASP) exhibited the highest galacturonic acid content (31.95%), the highest polysaccharides extractability (88.57%) and the lowest degree of esterification (31.76%). The different polysaccharides fractions were characterized by FTIR, 1H NMR and SEC/MALS/VD/DRI. The antioxidant tests (DPPH, ABTS and FRAP) indicated that ASP showed even better antioxidant activities. Moreover, the result of the antiproliferative activity against Caco-2 and B-16 cells showed that ASP exhibited strong cytotoxicity ability which confirmed that the Prunus amygdalus peels may comprise the natural raw materials for new drug and functional food.

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Almond is the most important nut species worldwide and almond kernels show the highest levels of tocopherols among all nuts. In almond, tocopherols not only play a substantial role as a healthy food for human consumption, but also in protecting lipids against oxidation and, thus, lengthening the storage time of almond kernels. The main tocopherol homologues detected in almond in decreasing content and biological importance are α-, γ-, δ-, and ß-tocopherol. Tocopherol concentration in almond depends on the genotype and the environment, such as the climatic conditions of the year and the growing management of the orchard. The range of variability for the different tocopherol homologues is of 335-657 mg/kg of almond oil for α-, 2-50 for γ-, and 0.1-22 for ß-tocopherol. Drought and heat have been the most important stresses affecting tocopherol content in almond, with increased levels at higher temperatures and in water deficit conditions. The right cultivar and the most appropriate growing conditions may be selected to obtain crops with effective kernel storage and for the most beneficial effects of almond consumption for human nutrition and health.

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BACKGROUND: The almond tree (Prunus amygdalus Batsch) is an important nut tree grown in subtropical regions that produces nutrient-rich nuts. However, a paucity of genomic information and DNA markers has restricted the development of modern breeding technologies for almond trees. RESULTS: In this study, almonds were sequenced with Illumina paired-end sequencing technology to obtain transcriptome data and develop simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers. We generated approximately 64 million clean reads from the various tissues of mixed almonds, and a total of 42,135 unigenes with an average length of 988 bp were obtained in the present study. A total of 27,586 unigenes (57.7% of all unigenes generated) were annotated using several databases. A total of 112,812 unigenes were annotated with the Gene Ontology (GO) database and assigned to 82 functional sub-groups, and 29,075 unigenes were assigned to the KOG database and classified into 25 function classifications. There were 9470 unigenes assigned to 129 Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways from five categories in the KEGG pathway database. We further identified 8641 SSR markers from 48,012 unigenes. A total of 100 SSR markers were randomly selected to validate quality, and 82 markers could amplify the specific products of A. communis L., whereas 70 markers were successfully transferable to five species (A. ledebouriana, A. mongolica, A. pedunculata, A. tangutica, and A. triloba). CONCLUSIONS: Our study was the first to produce public transcriptome data from almonds. The development of SSR markers will promote genetics research and breeding programmes for almonds.

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BACKGROUND/AIM: Almond hull is produced in high amounts and mostly used as livestock feed. This study was designed to examine the impact of almond hull powder (AHP) administration on lipid profile and antioxidant activities in plasma and liver in hyperlipidemic rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: As the first step, the antioxidant capacity and radical scavenging activity of AHP were determined using calorimetric methods. Then 36 adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 6 groups: group 1 with oral administration of 10% AHP, group 2 with oral administration of 20% AHP, group 3 with oral administration of 30% AHP, group 4 as a positive control with a high cholesterol diet, group 5 as a negative control with a normal diet, and group 6 as a sham group with a normal diet and 20% AHP. The rats were fed a hypercholesterolemic diet to create a hyperlipidemia rat model and then they received AHP for 30 days. RESULTS: Antioxidant and radical scavenging activity of the AHP extract showed a high content of antioxidants that exert potent radical scavenging activity. According to the results obtained, upon the administration of AHP the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides significantly decreased, while the antioxidant capacity of plasma increased. CONCLUSION: AHP with bioactive compounds and fiber can reduce total cholesterol and triglycerides and improve serum antioxidant capacity.

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Hydroxynitrile lyases (HNLs) catalyze the asymmetric addition of HCN to aldehydes producing enantiomerically pure cyanohydrins. These enzymes can be heterologously expressed in large quantities making them interesting candidates for industrial applications. The HNLs from Rosaceae evolved from flavin dependent dehydrogenase/oxidase structures. Here we report the high resolution X-ray structure of the highly glycosylated Prunus amygdalus HNL isoenzyme5 (PaHNL5 V317A) expressed in Aspergillus niger and its complex with benzyl alcohol. A comparison with the structure of isoenzyme PaHNL1 indicates a higher accessibility to the active site and a larger cavity for PaHNL5. Additionally, the PaHNL5 complex structure with benzyl alcohol was compared with the structurally related aryl-alcohol oxidase (AAO). Even though both enzymes contain an FAD-cofactor and histidine residues at crucial positions in the active site, PaHNL5 lacks the oxidoreductase activity. The structures indicate that in PaHNLs benzyl alcohol is bound too far away from the FAD cofactor in order to be oxidized.

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Almond kernels are a rich source of phytosterols, which are important compounds for human nutrition. The genetic control of phytosterol content has not yet been documented in almond. Association mapping (AM), also known as linkage disequilibrium (LD), was applied to an almond germplasm collection in order to provide new insight into the genetic control of total and individual sterol contents in kernels. Population structure analysis grouped the accessions into two principal groups, the Mediterranean and the non-Mediterranean. There was a strong subpopulation structure with LD decaying with increasing genetic distance, resulting in lower levels of LD between more distant markers. A significant impact of population structure on LD in the almond cultivar groups was observed. The mean r(2) -value for all intra-chromosomal loci pairs was 0.040, whereas, the r(2) for the inter-chromosomal loci pairs was 0.036. For analysis of association between the markers and phenotypic traits five models were tested. The mixed linear model (MLM) approach using co-ancestry values from population structure and kinship estimates (K model) as covariates identified a maximum of 13 significant associations. Most of the associations found appeared to map within the interval where many candidate genes involved in the sterol biosynthesis pathway are predicted in the peach genome. These findings provide a valuable foundation for quality gene identification and molecular marker assisted breeding in almond.

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Background Sweet-seeded domesticated almonds were brought to the Mediterranean Basin from central Asia about 4000 years ago. In Italy, most of the almonds produced are cultivated in the southern part of the country. Local populations of the tree in Sardinia are largely seed-derived and mostly self-incompatible, so have developed extensive genetic diversity. The need to protect biodiversity has prompted a revived interest in local genetic materials in almond. Two Italian collections have been established, one in Sardinia and the other in Apulia. These collections were the focus of the present evaluation of genetic diversity. Results Eleven SSRs (microsatellites) were used for fingerprinting. The Sardinian germplasm was highly polymorphic, revealing a mean of 14.5 alleles per locus and a mean heterozygosity of 0.71. Using a model-based clustering approach, two genetic clusters were distinguished: one included all the commercial varieties and most of the Sardinian accessions, and the other most of the Apulian accessions. A similar structure was produced using a distance-based cluster analysis. The Sardinian accessions could still be distinguished from the commercial germplasm with few exceptions. Conclusion The extensive genetic variability present in the Sardinian and Apulian almond germplasm indicates that these materials represent an important source of genes for the improvement of the crop.

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In this study, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) coupled to chemometrics is used to develop a fast, simple, non-destructive and robust method for discriminating sweet and bitter almonds (Prunus amygdalus) by the in situ measurement of the kernel surface without any sample pre-treatment. Principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) models were built to discriminate both types of almonds, obtaining high levels of sensitivity and specificity for both classes, with more than 95% of the samples correctly classified and discriminated. Moreover, the almonds were also analysed by Raman spectroscopy, the reference technique for this type of analysis, to validate and confirm the results obtained by NIR.

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BACKGROUND: This study aimed to determine the seasonal changes of total antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds in samples taken from leaves (April, July, October) and stems (April, July, October, January) of some almond (Prunus amygdalus L.) varieties (Nonpareil, Ferragnes and Texas). RESULTS: It was indicated that antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds in leaves and stems of Nonpareil, Ferragnes and Texas showed seasonal differences. Antioxidant activity IC50 of these varieties reached the highest value in April for leaves whereas in October for stems. The highest level of total phenolic compounds was in January for stems while in October for leaves. CONCLUSIONS: These results showed that total antioxidant activity and phenolics in leaves and stems of almond varieties changed according to season and plant organ.

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