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Background Antibiotic resistance is a global health concern, yet research on the identities and proportions of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the oral microflora of healthy children remains limited. These resistant bacteria could play a role in various conditions, such as dental infections, periodontitis, or systemic infections following dental procedures, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. This study aimed to assess the prevalence, proportions, and identities of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the oral microflora of healthy children. Methodology This cross-sectional study, conducted from January to December 2023 across three tertiary care hospitals in Peshawar, Pakistan, involved 364 healthy children aged 7-13 years. Data on antibiotic use were collected via structured interviews and medical records, detailing specific antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin, ceftriaxone, azithromycin), including dosage, duration, and reason for use. Oral swabs were taken from various sites in the oral cavity using sterile techniques and analyzed using microbiological culture methods and polymerase chain reaction to identify antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS version 27.0, utilizing chi-square tests to explore associations between demographic factors and resistance patterns, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results Significant proportions of antibiotic use were found among the participants: 172 (47.25%) received penicillins, 91 (25.00%) cephalosporins, and 101 (27.75%) macrolides, with associated side effects including gastrointestinal disorders and allergic responses. Age and gender differences were observed in antibiotic resistance proportions: among 7-9-year-olds, resistance to penicillins was 44 (18.33%), to cephalosporins 29 (12.08%), and to macrolides 33 (13.75%). In contrast, among 10-13-year-olds, these proportions increased to 55 (22.92%), 36 (15.00%), and 43 (17.92%), respectively. Male participants exhibited resistance to cephalosporins at a proportion of 24 (10.00%), to macrolides 45 (18.75%), and to penicillin 46 (19.17%), while female participants showed proportions of 53 (22.08%), 41 (17.08%), and 31 (12.92%), respectively. Among oral swab locations, the buccal mucosa had the highest resistance proportions: 35 (14.58%) to penicillins, 27 (11.25%) to cephalosporins, and 33 (13.92%) to macrolides. Specific bacterial species showed distinct resistance patterns, with notable proportions observed in Staphylococcus aureus (n=18; 50.00%, n=12; 33.33%, and n=6; 16.67%, respectively), Escherichia coli (n=16; 40.00%, n=10; 25.00%, and n=14; 35.00%, respectively), Enterococcus faecalis (n=29; 45.31%, n=14; 21.88%, and n=21; 32.81%, respectively), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (n=19; 36.54%, n=13; 25.00%, and n=20; 38.46%, respectively). Conclusions This study focused on healthy children aged 7-13 years in Peshawar, Pakistan, to assess the prevalence and types of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in their oral microbiota. The findings highlight resistance patterns by age, gender, and bacterial species. However, the regional context may limit the generalizability of these results. Differences in local antibiotic use, healthcare practices, and environmental factors could influence resistance patterns in other regions. Future research should expand to include diverse geographic locations to evaluate the broader applicability of these findings and identify region-specific factors affecting antibiotic resistance.

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Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease with complex pathogenesis and no effective treatment. Recent studies have shown that dysbiosis of the oral microflora is closely related to the development of PD. The abnormally distributed oral microflora of PD patients cause degenerative damage and necrosis of dopamine neurons by releasing their own components and metabolites, intervening in the oral-gut-brain axis, crossing the biofilm, inducing iron dysregulation, activating inter-microflora interactions, and through the mediation of saliva,ultimately influencing the development of the disease. This article reviews the structure of oral microflora in patients with PD, the mechanism of development of PD caused by oral microflora, and the potential value of targeting oral microflora in developing a new strategy for PD prevention, diagnosis and treatment.

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Aim To assess the antimicrobial activity of herbal, homeopathic, and conventional dentifrices against oral microorganisms. Methodology Mueller Hilton agar was used to cultivate distinct strains of Streptococcus mutans and Enterococcus faecalis, whereas Candida albicans was cultured on a potato dextrose agar medium. Diffusion ratios of 1:5, 1:10, and 1:15 were obtained by diluting 1 gram of each dentifrice (KP Namboodiri, Homeodent, and Colgate Strong Teeth) in 4 ml, 9 ml, and 14 ml of distilled water, respectively. The culture medium was filled with sterile discs. Twenty µl of each dilution of prepared dentifrice formulations were incorporated using a micropipette. The agar plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37ºC. Result The findings indicate that there was a higher zone of inhibition against Streptococcus mutans with herbal dentifrice at 10 mm, 8 mm, and 6.5 mm, followed by conventional dentifrice at 10 mm, 7.5 mm, and 7 mm, and the lowest with homeopathic dentifrice at 8 mm, 7 mm, and 7 mm at 1:5, 1:10 and 1:15 dilutions, respectively. Conventional dentifrice was found to inhibit Enterococcus faecalis at 9 mm, 8 mm, and 7 mm with 1:5, 1:10, and 1:15 dilutions followed by herbal dentifrice at 9 mm, 7 mm with 1:5, 1:10 dilutions, and no inhibition at 1:15 dilution. In contrast, homeopathic dentifrice displayed no inhibition at 1:5, 1:10, and 1:15 dilutions. Neither homeopathic nor conventional dentifrices inhibited Candida albicans, but herbal dentifrices showed a 10 mm zone of inhibition at 1:10 dilution. Conclusion Conventional and herbal dentifrices were found to be more effective against Streptococcus mutans than the homeopathic dentifrice used in the study, whereas herbal dentifrice was more effective against Candida albicans when compared to conventional and homeopathic dentifrices.

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INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Both periodontitis and non-specific bowel diseases (IBD) are complex chronic diseases, and the elements connecting them are the dysregulated microbiota and abnormal immune response of the host. In turn, in the etiology of these diseases, the common environmental risk factor is improper mode of nutrition. The aim of the study is to review nutritional interventions and effective nutritional protocols applied in periodontitis and IBD. The result of the review will be identification of dietary recommendations exerting a beneficial effect on the reduction of the risk of development and alleviation of the severity of both diseases. At the same time, non-recommended dietary choices will be indicated. REVIEW METHODS: A review of literature was carried out using the databases PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science. Publications were analyzed by a non-systematic literature review aimed at making a brief synthesis of the collected information. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE: Diets recommended to patients with both periodontitis and IBD included the Mediterranean diet, DASH diet and vegetarian diet; excluding veganism, raw foodism and fruitarianism. For patients with IBD, special dietary recommendations were elaborated on the recommendations of the International Organization for Research into Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IOIBD), and specific diets, i.e. specific carbohydrate diet (SCD), and Groningen anti-inflammatory diet (GrAID). In the process of treatment of oral and intestinal dysbiosis, probiotic therapy is beneficial in both diseases, specified as the Western diet. Non-conventional diets are not recommended. SUMMARY: Diet therapy for inflammatory periodontal diseases and IBD requires extensive individualization; nevertheless, a universal principle is avoidance of highly processed food, and implementation of easily digestible meals based on natural, ecological products. Proper nutrition plays a crucial role in primary prevention of both diseases analyzed, whereas in secondary prevention, diet therapy is a valuable supplementation of pharmacotherapy.

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Aim: To evaluate the change in microflora in children suffering from severe early childhood caries (ECC) after full mouth rehabilitation. Materials and methods: A total of 60 children, aged 3-5 years suffering from severe ECC who fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion criteria were included in the study. Pooled plaque samples were taken and subjected to quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to obtain baseline mean values of Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans), Streptococcus sobrinus (S. sobrinus), Candida albicans (C. albicans), and Candida dubliniensis (C. dubliniensis) before full mouth rehabilitation was done under general anesthesia. Posttreatment samples were collected at 6, 12, and 18 months. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare the mean values of S. mutans, S. sobrinus, C. albicans, and C. dubliniensis before and after full mouth rehabilitation. Results: A total of 60 patients recruited for the study were present at the follow-up at 6 and 12 months. At 18 months, 55 patients returned, and five were lost due to follow-up. A statistically significant reduction was seen in all microorganisms at 6, 12, and 18 months compared to baseline values. At 18 months a slight increase in S. mutans, S. sobrinus, and C. albicans was seen. C. dubliniensis was not detected in any cases after full mouth rehabilitation. Caries recurrence was seen in four patients at 18 months. Conclusion: Significant reduction of S. mutans, S. sobrinus, C. albicans, and C. dubliniensis was seen at 6, 12, and 18 months. A complete reduction of only C. dubliniensis was seen. A significant but not permanent reduction of S. mutans, S. sobrinus, and C. albicans. Caries recurrence was seen in 7.27% of patients at 18 months. How to cite this article: Mathew MG, Jeevanandan G, Rathod NN. Evaluation of Changes in Oral Microflora in Children with Early Childhood Caries after Full Mouth Rehabilitation. Int J Clin Pediatr Dent 2024;17(1):21-25.

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Current research has described improving multisystem disease and organ function through dietary nitrate (DN) supplementation. They have provided some evidence that these floras with nitrate (NO3-) reductase are mediators of the underlying mechanism. Symbiotic bacteria with nitrate reductase activity (NRA) are found in the human digestive tract, including the mouth, esophagus and gastrointestinal tract (GT). Nitrate in food can be converted to nitrite under the tongue or in the stomach by these symbiotic bacteria. Then, nitrite is transformed to nitric oxide (NO) by non-enzymatic synthesis. NO is currently recognized as a potent bioactive agent with biological activities, such as vasodilation, regulation of cardiomyocyte function, neurotransmission, suppression of platelet agglutination, and prevention of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. NO also can be produced through the conventional L-arginine-NO synthase (L-NOS) pathway, whereas endogenous NO production by L-arginine is inhibited under hypoxia-ischemia or disease conditions. In contrast, exogenous NO3-/NO2-/NO activity is enhanced and becomes a practical supplemental pathway for NO in the body, playing an essential role in various physiological activities. Moreover, many diseases (such as metabolic or geriatric diseases) are primarily associated with disorders of endogenous NO synthesis, and NO generation from the exogenous NO3-/NO2-/NO route can partially alleviate the disease progression. The imbalance of NO in the body may be one of the potential mechanisms of disease development. Therefore, the impact of these floras with nitrate reductase on host systemic health through exogenous NO3-/NO2-/NO pathway production of NO or direct regulation of floras ecological balance is essential (e.g., regulation of body homeostasis, amelioration of diseases, etc.). This review summarizes the bacteria with nitrate reductase in humans, emphasizing the relationship between the metabolic processes of this microflora and host systemic health and disease. The potential effects of nitrate reduction bacteria on human health and disease were also highlighted in disease models from different human systems, including digestive, cardiovascular, endocrine, nervous, respiratory, and urinary systems, providing innovative ideas for future disease diagnosis and treatment based on nitrate reduction bacteria.

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Poor palatal wound healing after cleft palate repair could lead to unfavorable prognosis such as oronasal fistula (ONF), which might affect the patient's velopharyngeal function as well as their quality of life. Thus, restoring poor palatal wound healing for avoiding the occurrence of ONF should be considered the key to postoperative care after cleft palate repair. This review provided current insights in the preclinical study of poor palatal wound healing after cleft palate repair. This review comprehensively introduced the animal model establishment for palatal wound healing and related ONF, including the models by mice, rats, piglets, and dogs, and then demonstrated the aspects for investigating poor palatal wound healing and related treatments, including possible signaling pathways that could be involved in the formation of poor palatal wound healing, the related microbiota changes because of the deformity of palatal structure, and the studies for potential therapeutic strategies for palatal wound healing and ONF. The purpose of this review was to show the state of the art in preclinical studies about palatal wound healing after cleft palate repair and to show the promising aspects for better management of palatal wound healing.

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Introduction: Oral health is an essential non-integrated part of general health that plays a vital role in preventing chronic diseases. The oral cavity acts as a suitable environment for the proliferation of bacteria by forming a connecting link to invade the tissues through direct contact from outside. For the past few decades, there has been increased resistance of human pathogenic bacteria to the currently used antibiotics and chemotherapeutics for tooth decay, gingivitis, periodontitis and fungal infection among different age groups. Hence, the search has shifted to traditional plants and natural products, which are a good alternative. To create oral hygiene solutions for the prevention of oral infections, several ayurvedic ingredients, including Andrographis paniculata and Mimusops elengi, have been tested for their effectiveness against dental pathogens. The present investigation's purpose is to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration-based antibacterial efficiency of Andrographis paniculata and Mimusops elengi against Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Actinomyces and Candida albicans. Methodology: Antimicrobial activity of herbal extracts was determined using the agar well diffusion method. Ethanolic extracts were prepared using a cold extraction method whereas Dimethyl sulfoxide and water were used as dissolution solvents. The diluted herbal extract sample was used as the test sample, while the positive control used was an antibiotic solution and the negative control used was dissolution solvents. The samples were implanted, the bacteria along with the culture media were incubated, and the zone of inhibition was measured. Results: The Minimum inhibitory concentration and zones of inhibition of Andrographis Paniculata and Mimusops Elengi showed significant antibacterial efficacy when compared with standards. Conclusion: Andrographis Paniculata and Mimusops Elengi may be used as an efficient addition to conventional care in the management of oral disorders, according to their antimicrobial efficacy.

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Introduction: The oral cavity is home to numerous microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses which together form the oral microflora. It is the second most diverse microbial site in the human body after the gastrointestinal tract. Microbial degradation is a common phenomenon that occurs after death, with the early and advanced stages of decomposition being closely associated with oral microbial activity. Methods: This article reviews the current state of knowledge on the role of the oral microflora in postmortem events, and highlights the growing importance of terms such as forensic microbiology and thanatomicrobiome. This article also discusses next-generation sequencing, metagenomic sequencing studies, and RNA sequencing to study the oral thanatomicrobiome and epinecrotic communities in forensic oral genetics. Results: The indigenous microorganisms in the oral cavity are among the first to respond to the process of decomposition. DNA/RNA sequencing is a relatively simple, precise, and cost-effective method to estimate biological diversity during various stages of postmortem decomposition. The field of thanatomicrobiology is rapidly evolving into a key area in forensic research. Conclusion: This article briefly narrates oral microflora and its implications in forensic odontology. The role of microbial activity in postmortem events is gaining importance in forensic research, and further studies are needed to fully understand the potential applications of advanced technology in the study of the oral thanatomicrobiome.

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Aim: Antibiotics treat various diseases by targeting microorganisms by killing them or reducing their multiplication rate. New Delhi Metallo-beta-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) is produced by bacteria possessing the resistance gene blaNDM-1, the enzyme that makes bacteria resistant to beta-lactams. Bacteriophages, especially Lactococcus, have shown their ability to break down lactams. Hence, the current study computationally evaluated the binding potential of Lactococcus bacteriophages with NDM using Molecular docking and dynamics. Methods: Modelling of NDM I-TASSER for Main tail protein gp19 OS=Lactococcus phage LL-H or Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis after downloading from UNIPROT ID- Q38344. Cluspro tool helps in Understanding cellular function and organization with protein-protein interactions. MD simulations(19) typically compute atom movements over time. Simulations were used to predict the ligand binding status in the physiological environment. Results: The best binding affinity score was found -1040.6 Kcal/mol compared to other docking scores. MD simulations show in RMSD values for target remains within 1.0 Angstrom, which is acceptable. The ligand-protein fit to receptor protein RMSD values of 2.752 fluctuates within 1.5 Angstrom after equilibration. Conclusions: Lactococcus bacteriophages showed a strong affinity to the NDM. Hence, this hypothesis, supported by evidence from a computational approach, will solve this life-threatening superbug problem.

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Oral environment deterioration results from a lack of self-cleaning ability in patients with cognitive dysfunction but is also a risk factor for cognitive dysfunction. Adverse oral conditions can be alleviated and improved through a self-management and medical examination. In this review, the epidemiological evidence of previous studies is integrated to highlight the relationship between periodontitis, tooth loss, oral flora, oral dysfunction and cognitive dysfunction, emphasizing the importance of oral health for cognition. The results show that poor oral condition is associated with cognitive impairment. Although many previous studies have been conducted, there is a lack of higher-level research evidence, different judgment criteria, and conflicting research results. There is a bidirectional relationship between oral health and cognitive dysfunction. A comprehensive analysis of the relationship between oral health and cognitive dysfunction that explores the relationship and takes measures to prevent cognitive dysfunction and control the progression of such diseases is warranted in the future.

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OBJECTIVE: To explore the correlation between tongue and oral microbiota, we studied the microbial community structure of different tongue coating types in patients with chronic gastritis. METHODS: 16S rDNA gene sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were used to study the dynamic changes and correlation of microbial flora in patients with chronic gastritis, healthy people, and patients with different tongue fur. In addition, it was also discussed between the severity of gastritis and the microflora of tongue fur. RESULTS: The microbial diversity of tongue fur in patients with chronic gastritis was significantly different from healthy controls. There were significant changes in bacterial communities' diversity and relative abundance between extra tongue fur in patients but not in healthy people. Oral bacteria with relative abundance > 1% and < 0.05 among different tongue fur flora were dominant bacteria, including 12 phyla such as and , and 256 genera such as and . CONCLUSIONS: The changes in oral flora in patients with chronic gastritis were related to tongue fur. Therefore, the significant microbiota might enlighten further study on the correlation between tongue inspection and oral microbiota in patients with chronic gastritis.

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The oral cavity has the second largest and most diverse microflora. A wide variety of bacteria, viruses, and fungi are present in the oral cavity. A significant number of studies have shown the important role of oral microflora in the initiation and pathogenesis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Microorganisms like Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Neisseria, Prevotella, Fusobacterium, Porphyromonas, Herpes Simplex Virus I (HSV-1), Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), Candida plays an important role in OSCC. Increased microbial load affects tumor initiation and progression through direct effects on the tumor cells and indirectly through manipulation of the immune system. But the mechanisms describing the steps of oral microflora initiating the OSCC remain an enigma. This systematic review aims to understand the potential carcinogenic effect of oral microflora on OSCC. A systematic literature search was done in PubMed and Google Scholar databases, and six studies were obtained, comprising 1267 participants. The incidence was evaluated as an odds ratio (OR) with a 95% confidence interval (95% CI) using review manager 5.2 software. Oral microflora increased 2.10-fold risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OR=2.10, 95% CI: 0.76, 5.84, P= 0.15, I2=86%, Ph<0.00001). In our subgroup analysis, there is a significant relation between Fusobacterium and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OR= 4.86, 95% CI: 0.99, 23.82, P=0.05, I2=0%, Ph= 0.84). Individuals with Epstein-Barr Virus infection exhibit increased incidence of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OR= 3.72, 95% CI: 1.97, 7.04, P=<0.0001, I2=0%, Ph= 0.82). The meta-analysis revealed that oral microflora increases the risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma.

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Introduction: Meningitis caused by oral anaerobic bacteria is rare, especially when complicated with an infected intracranial aneurysm. This paper has described an extremely rare case of bacterial meningitis caused by a mixed infection of oral microflora dominated by anaerobes, which developed cerebral infarcts, brain abscess, intracranial aneurysm, and severe hydrocephalus during treatment. Case report: We describe a 65-year-old male patient who was presented with fever and headache as the initial symptoms and then developed left ophthalmoplegia, right hemiplegia, and disturbance of consciousness. Brain imaging showed that intracranial lesions were increased progressively, and cerebral infarcts, brain abscesses, intracranial aneurysm, and severe hydrocephalus were appeared gradually. Eventually, we diagnosed it as anaerobic meningitis by making deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing from the brain abscess pus. After using an anti-microbial regimen that can sufficiently cover anaerobes, the patient's condition was effectively controlled. Conclusion: Anaerobic meningitis can cause a series of intracranial complications. Among them, the intracranial aneurysm is extremely rare. When evidence shows that the infection originates from oral flora, physicians should consider the possibility of this type of encephalitis. An early diagnosis and timely treatment are crucial to improving the prognosis.

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Dental caries is a global oral health problem caused due to localized demineralization of the enamel. Chemical plaque control is used as an adjuvant to mechanical plaque control in removing biofilm, thereby preventing dental caries. In recent times, there has been a renewed interest in nature-based products. This systematic review aimed to analyse the existing literature to compare the effectiveness of herbal and conventional dentifrices on prevention of dental caries. A search was done in the databases of PubMed and Google Scholar in July 2020 for the related topic. A hand search was done from the references of primary studies and other clinical trial registry sites. Randomized control trials, comparative clinical trials, and in vitro studies in which the effectiveness of herbal and conventional dentifrices on prevention of dental caries were included after review by the reviewers. The systematic search revealed a total of thirty-two publications from which ten publications were included. Five studies were clinical studies and five were in vitro studies. All the studies used microbiological analysis for the determination of cariogenic microorganisms in plaque and saliva, whereas one study used pH of plaque and saliva. Among the included studies, all studies had a high risk of bias with level 2 evidence. With the evidence available, it can be concluded that herbal dentifrices and fluoride dentifrices have similar antimicrobial activity against cariogenic microorganisms.

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The present in vivo study determined the microbiological counts of the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) among patients with fixed dental prostheses fabricated using three different techniques. A total of 129 subjects were divided into three study groups: first, cobalt-chrome-based, metal-ceramic prostheses fabricated by the conventional method (MC, n = 35); the second group consisted of cobalt-chrome-based, metal-ceramic prostheses fabricated by the computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) technique (CC-MC, n = 35); the third group comprised zirconia-based ceramic prostheses fabricated using the CAD/CAM technique (CC-Zr, n = 35). The control consisted of 24 patients using prostheses fabricated with either MC, CC-MC, or CC-Zr. The GCF was obtained from the subjects before treatment, and 6 and 12 months after the prosthetic treatment. Bacteriological and bacterioscopic analysis of the GCF was performed to analyze the patients' GCF. The data were analyzed using SPSS V20 (IBM Company, Chicago, IL, USA). The number of microorganisms of the gingival crevicular fluid in all groups at 12 months of prosthetic treatment reduced dramatically compared with the data obtained before prosthetic treatment. Inflammatory processes in the periodontium occurred slowly in the case of zirconium oxide-based ceramic constructions due to their biocompatibility with the mucous membranes and tissues of the oral cavity as well as a reduced risk of dental biofilm formation. This should be considered by dentists and prosthodontists when choosing restoration materials for subjects with periodontal pathology.

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Sialoperoxidase and myeloperoxidase are the two main peroxidase enzymes found in the oral cavity. Sialoperoxidase is present in salivary secretions and in the biofilms that line the oral surfaces, while myeloperoxidase is abundant in the dento­gingival sulcus area. In the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), oral peroxidases catalyze the oxidation of the pseudohalide anion thiocyanate (SCN­) to hypothiocyanite (OSCN­), a strong oxidant that serves an antimicrobial role. Furthermore, oral peroxidases consume bacteria­produced H2O2 and could help inactivate toxic carcinogenic and genotoxic substances. Numerous in vitro studies have reported the antibacterial, antimycotic and antiviral role of peroxidases, suggesting possible applications in oral therapy. However, the use of oral hygiene products incorporating peroxidase systems has not yet been shown to be beneficial for the treatment or prevention of oral infections. This paradox reflects our incomplete knowledge of the physiological role of peroxidases in a complex environment, such as the oral region. While hygiene is crucial for restoring oral microbiota to a symbiotic state, there are no data to suggest that the addition of a peroxidase per se can create a dysbiotic state. Recent investigations have associated the presence of peroxidase activity with gram­positive cocci microbial flora, and its insufficiency with dysbiosis has been linked to pathologies, such as caries, periodontitis or infections of the oral mucosa. Therefore, oxidants generated by oral peroxidases appear to be an essential ecological determinant for oral health through the selection of a symbiotic microbiota capable of resisting oxidative stress. The objective of the present review was to update the current knowledge of the physiological aspects and applications of oral peroxidases in clinical practice.

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Despite recent improvement in implant survival rates, there remains a significant demand for enhancing the long-term clinical efficacy of titanium (Ti) implants, particularly for the prevention of peri-implantitis. Bioactive substances such as antimicrobial peptides are emerging as effective alternatives for contemporary antimicrobial agents used in dental health care. Current research work was focused to use laterosporulins that are non-haemolytic cationic antimicrobial peptides from Brevibacillus spp. for coating commercially available Ti discs. The coated Ti surfaces were evaluated in vitro for biofilm formation by two dental plaque isolates Streptococcus gordonii strain DIGK25 and S. mutans strain DIGK119 as representatives of commensal and pathogenic streptococci respectively. The biofilm inhibition was ascertained with replicated experiments on hydroxyapatite discs and confirmed by florescence microscopy. The laterosporulin coated Ti discs showed significantly reduced biofilm formation by oral streptococci and displayed promising potential to enhance the antibacterial surface properties. Such improvised Ti surfaces may curb the menace of oral streptococcal biofilm formation on dental implants and the associated implant failures.

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The LuxS quorum sensing system is considered as the main system that most of the oral bacteria use to communicate in order to create biofilms. Here we identified 11 of the most important biofilm formers that utilize the LuxS system and presented current and recent information regarding this system. Though different bacterial species are able to communicate thorough the LuxS system, it was also found that cross kingdom communication can occur between bacteria and fungi and bacteria and epithelial cells. Immune response also plays and important role in mitigating the effects of biofilms. Here we identified 6 of the most important molecules that are involved in the immune response to biofilms. These immune molecules maintain the stability in the oral cavity by preventing bacteria from overwhelming the space and simultaneously minimizing the immune response in order not to cause tissue damage. Here we also discuss current research being done in order to maintain the balance in the oral cavity via inhibiting biofilm formation without eradicating oral bacteria in order to prevent the overgrowth of other organisms such as Candida albicans. One approach being used is inhibiting AI-2 intermediates which leads to lack of quorum sensing communication between bacteria through the use of intermediate analogues. Another approach that found success is the utilization of D forms of sugars where D-ribose and D-galactose have been proven to inhibit the LuxS system and subsequently preventing the process of quorum sensing leading to the reduction in biofilm formation.

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During a snake bite, the microbes may get transferred to the bite site and may cause secondary infection along with envenomation. The knowledge on the oral bacterial flora of snakes constitutes information important for snake bite management. The inadequately studied oral microflora of snakes differ geographically, temporally and among the members of the same species. The objective of this study is to determine the pattern of oral bacterial flora of Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) and their susceptibility to antibiotics. Oral swabs were collected from nine healthy Saw-scaled vipers, subjected to microbiological, biochemical and molecular characterization. Additionally, these isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing using ICOSA-20-Plus and ICOSA-20-Minus. A wide range of pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella arizonae, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Proteus penneri, Alcaligenes faecalis; Citrobacter diversus, C. freundii, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus anthracis, Staphylococcus sciuri and Achromobacter xylosoxidans were isolated as new additions to the floral diversity of saw scale viper. Most of the isolates were sensitive towards amikacin, azithromycin, imipenem, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, ofloxacin, sparfloxacin, tobramycin, levofloxacin, kanamycin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol while resistant to amoxyclav, cephalothin, cefpodoxime, Co-Trimoxazole, oxacillin and penicillin. The present study revealed that the bacterial flora of the oral cavity of Saw-scaled viper is resistant to many common antibiotics, which are often used for the treatment of snake-bite victims.

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