RESUMEN
Friction ridges are important and unique biometric features that have been studied in fingerprint science since antiquity and used for human identification. This study aimed to analyze palmprints and soleprints of Callithrix penicillata, including the description of flexion creases, regions, minutiae classification, and delta counting, in order to evaluate the uniqueness of these data and feasibility of using this information as an identification method. Palmprints and footprints were collected using commercial fingerprint ink on A4 size paper. Following image digitalization using the GIMP (2.10.14) image editing program, regions and flexion creases were identified. A total of 600 minutiae were classified in females (288 palms and 312 soles) and 732 in males (360 palms and 372 soles), and all deltas were counted. It was possible to identify three main inconstant flexion creases, in both palmprints and soleprints, with different distribution and orientation when compared to those in humans. Less variety in the types of minutiae and differences in the distribution of deltas were found when compared to human studies. In addition, the hypothesis of non-coincident characteristics in each sample was confirmed.
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Callithrix , Dermatoglifia , Animales , Callithrix/fisiología , Masculino , Femenino , Humanos , Mano/anatomía & histología , Pie/anatomía & histologíaRESUMEN
There are more than 200 species and subspecies of Neotropical Primates of which more than 40% are listed as threatened by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Both in situ and ex situ conservation programs can benefit from the use of assisted reproductive technologies. The objective of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, cryopreservation techniques for Alouatta caraya semen. Semen samples were collected from five adult males, analyzed, and frozen in either Test-egg yolk or Test-soy lecithin-based extenders containing either 3 or 4% glycerol. Frozen-thawed samples were analyzed at 10, 40, and 80 min post-thaw. Egg yolk-based extenders were overall better than soy lecithin-based extenders. There was no significant difference between 3 and 4% glycerol in any of the parameters analyzed, however, 4% glycerol in egg yolk-based extender produced more favorable results for total motility, intact plasma membrane, lipid peroxidation, and DNA fragmentation index. This study brought novel information on semen characteristics and cryopreservation aspects for A. caraya, which can help shape future experiments to improve the outcome of frozen-thawed sperm for this and other species of Neotropical primates.
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Alouatta , Criopreservación , Crioprotectores , Yema de Huevo , Preservación de Semen , Espermatozoides , Animales , Masculino , Criopreservación/veterinaria , Criopreservación/métodos , Preservación de Semen/veterinaria , Preservación de Semen/métodos , Yema de Huevo/química , Espermatozoides/fisiología , Alouatta/fisiología , Lecitinas , Glycine max/química , Glicerol , Motilidad Espermática/efectos de los fármacosRESUMEN
This case report describes different repair techniques used to reconstruct a large scalp defect in a brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) hit by a vehicle. Three reconstructive procedures were performed in two surgical stages. The repair techniques had successful outcomes on the patient's rehabilitation.
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Alouatta , Cuero Cabelludo , AnimalesRESUMEN
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) outbreaks occur sporadically. Additionally, VEEV has a history of development as a biothreat agent. Yet, no FDA-approved vaccine or therapeutic exists for VEEV disease. The sporadic outbreaks present a challenge for testing medical countermeasures (MCMs) in humans; therefore, well-defined animal models are needed for FDA Animal Rule licensure. The cynomolgus macaque (CM) model has been studied extensively at high challenge doses of the VEEV Trinidad donkey strain (>1.0 × 108 plaque-forming units [PFU]), doses that are too high to be a representative human dose. Based on viremia of two subtypes of VEEV, IC, and IAB, we found the CM infectious dose fifty (ID50) to be low, 12 PFU, and 6.7 PFU, respectively. Additionally, we characterized the pattern of three clinical parameters (viremia, temperature, and lymphopenia) across a range of doses to identify a challenge dose producing consistent signs of infection. Based on these studies, we propose a shift to using a lower challenge dose of 1.0 × 103 PFU in the aerosol CM model of VEEV disease. At this dose, NHPs had the highest viremia, demonstrated a fever response, and had a measurable reduction in complete lymphocyte counts-biomarkers that can demonstrate MCM efficacy.
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Virus de la Encefalitis Equina Venezolana , Encefalomielitis Equina Venezolana , Vacunas Virales , Animales , Caballos , Humanos , Macaca fascicularis , Viremia/tratamiento farmacológico , Modelos Animales de EnfermedadRESUMEN
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the route of administration on the immunogenicity and efficacy of a combined western, eastern, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis (WEVEE) virus-like replicon particle (VRP) vaccine in cynomolgus macaques. The vaccine consisted of equal amounts of WEEV, EEEV, and VEEV VRPs. Thirty-three animals were randomly assigned to five treatment or control groups. Animals were vaccinated with two doses of WEVEE VRPs or the control 28 days apart. Blood was collected 28 days following primary vaccination and 21 days following boost vaccination for analysis of the immune response to the WEVEE VRP vaccine. NHPs were challenged by aerosol 28 or 29 days following second vaccination with WEEV CBA87. Vaccination with two doses of WEVEE VRP was immunogenic and resulted in neutralizing antibody responses specific for VEEV, EEEV and WEEV. None of the vaccinated animals met euthanasia criteria following aerosol exposure to WEEV CBA87. However, one NHP control (total of 11 controls) met euthanasia criteria after infection with WEEV CBA87. Statistically significant differences in median fever hours were noted in control NHPs compared to vaccinated NHPs, providing a quantitative measure of infection and efficacy of the vaccine against a WEEV challenge. Alterations in lymphocytes, monocytes, and neutrophils were observed. Lymphopenia was observed in control NHPs.
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Virus de la Encefalitis Equina Venezolana , Encefalomielitis Equina Venezolana , Vacunas Virales , Aerosoles , Animales , Anticuerpos Antivirales , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Virus de la Encefalitis Equina Venezolana/genética , Encefalomielitis Equina Venezolana/prevención & control , Caballos , Macaca fascicularis , ReplicónRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Comparative studies of kidney morphophysiology in nonhuman primates can help us investigate interspecies differences in growth and aging patterns. METHODS: We tested the effect of age and sex in renal morphophysiology in 21 Alouatta caraya and 21 Sapajus apella (age range = 0.5-26 years) by ultrasound, red blood cell (RBC) count, and kidney function tests. RESULTS: A. caraya had greater growth rate and absolute renal volume than S. apella, but the latter showed a greater relative renal volume and RBC count. There was a negative relationship between RBC and age, a positive relationship between creatinine and body mass, and an apparent negative relationship between creatinine and age only in S. apella. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that A. caraya has a faster aging mechanism than S. apella, and the higher relative kidney volume in S. apella is suggestive of high metabolic demands in this species.
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Alouatta caraya , Alouatta , Alouatta/fisiología , Animales , Creatinina , Riñón/diagnóstico por imagen , Riñón/fisiología , Primates , Sapajus apellaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The "starry sky" (SK) liver is ultrasonographic pattern characterized by multiple hyperechogenic foci in hepatic parenchyma. The study aimed to characterize the microscopic hepatic lesions in captive owl monkeys with SK liver. METHODS: Thirty-seven clinically healthy owl monkeys had their liver scanned and 18 of them had liver biopsy. Animals with SK and peliosis hepatis (PH) were subjected to immunohistochemical and molecular screening for Bartonella spp. RESULTS: SK liver occurred in 59.4% (22/37) of the owl monkeys. Biopsied animals showed steatosis, hydropic degeneration, hemosiderosis, PH, and multifocal granulomatous hepatitis. Two monkeys had SK, granulomatous hepatitis, and PH which were negative for Bartonella spp. CONCLUSIONS: PH and granulomatous hepatitis associated with hepatocellular degenerative lesions may present as hyperechoic nodular liver lesions consisted of SK liver; therefore, concomitant occurrence of two lesions or more contributed to the hepatic SK pattern among owl monkeys and such cases might be clinically monitored.
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Aotidae , Hepatopatías , Animales , Granuloma , Hígado/diagnóstico por imagen , Hepatopatías/diagnóstico por imagen , Hepatopatías/veterinariaRESUMEN
Animal models enable research on biological phenomena with controlled interventions not possible or ethical in patients. Among species used as experimental models, squirrel monkeys (Saimiri genus) are phylogenetically related to humans and are relatively easily managed in captivity. Quadrupedal locomotion of squirrel monkeys resembles most other quadrupedal primates in that they utilize a diagonal sequence/diagonal couplets gait when walking on small branches. However, to assume a bipedal locomotion, the human pelvis has undergone evolutionary changes. Therefore, the pelvic bone morphology is not that similar between the female squirrel monkey and woman, but pelvic floor support structures and impacts of fetal size and malpresentation are similar. Thus, this review explores the pelvic floor support structural characteristics of female squirrel monkeys, especially in relation to childbirth to demonstrate similarities to humans.
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Trastornos del Suelo Pélvico , Animales , Femenino , Marcha , Humanos , Locomoción , SaimiriRESUMEN
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a common cause of diarrheal illness in the military, travelers, and children living in low- to middle-income countries. Increased antibiotic resistance, the absence of a licensed vaccine, and the lack of broadly practical therapeutics perpetuate the significant health and financial burden resulting from ETEC infection. A critical step in the evaluation of vaccines and therapeutics is preclinical screening in a relevant animal disease model that closely replicates human disease. We previously developed a diarrheal model of class 5a colonization factor (CF) CFA/I-expressing ETEC in the New World owl monkey species Aotus nancymaae using ETEC strain H10407. In order to broaden the use of the model, we report here on the development of A. nancymaae models of ETEC expressing the class 5b CFs CS17 and CS19 with strains LSN03-016011/A and WS0115A, respectively. For both models, we observed diarrheal attack rates of ≥80% after oral inoculation with 5 × 1011 CFU of bacteria. These models will aid in assessing the efficacy of future ETEC vaccine candidates and therapeutics.
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Aotidae/genética , Aotidae/microbiología , Diarrea/tratamiento farmacológico , Escherichia coli Enterotoxigénica/genética , Escherichia coli Enterotoxigénica/patogenicidad , Infecciones por Escherichia coli/tratamiento farmacológico , Infecciones por Escherichia coli/prevención & control , Vacunas contra Escherichia coli , Animales , Diarrea/microbiología , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Enterotoxinas , Genes BacterianosRESUMEN
A major outbreak of yellow fever (YF) occurred in Brazil during 2016-2018. Epizootics in New World nonhuman primates are sentinel events for YF virus circulation. However, genus-specific susceptibilities and suitability for YF surveillance remain poorly understood. We obtained and compared epidemiologic, histopathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular results from 93 human and 1,752 primate cases submitted during the recent YF outbreak in Brazil (2017), with the support of the Brazilian National YF Surveillance Program. We detected heterogeneous YF-associated profiles among the various genera of primates we analyzed. Alouatta primates were the most reliable sentinel; Sapajus and Callicebus primates had higher viral loads but lower proportional mortality rates. Callithrix primates were the least sensitive, showing lower viral loads, lower proportional mortality rates, and no demonstrable YF virus antigen or extensive lesions in liver, despite detectable viral RNA. These differences in susceptibility, viral load, and mortality rates should be considered in strategic surveillance of epizootics and control measures for YF.
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Alouatta , Fiebre Amarilla , Animales , Brasil/epidemiología , Humanos , Primates , Fiebre Amarilla/epidemiología , Fiebre Amarilla/veterinaria , Virus de la Fiebre Amarilla/genéticaRESUMEN
Os primatas não-humanos (PNHs) são tidos como importantes modelos para estudos biomédicos devido à sua grande similaridade biológica com os seres humanos. As técnicas de reprodução assistida (TRAs) constituem uma importante ferramenta para realização de estudos que envolvam infertilidade, desenvolvimento de contraceptivos, gestação e desenvolvimento fetal, preservação da fertilidade em pacientes com câncer, geração de modelos experimentais por meio de técnicas de edição gênica, entre outros. O objetivo dessa revisão é discutir as principais TRAs utilizadas em PNHs e suas aplicações. Dentre as técnicas mais utilizadas em PNHs, podem-se citar colheita e criopreservação de sêmen, monitoramento do ciclo ovariano, estimulação ovariana controlada e aspiração de folículos ovarianos, fecundação in vitro, injeção intracitoplasmática de espermatozoides, inseminação artificial, microinjeção para injeção gênica, biopsia embrionária, criopreservação de embriões, transferência de embriões, diagnóstico de gestação, enxerto de gônadas e clonagem. Os estudos apresentados nesta revisão mostram a evolução das TRAs e suas diferentes aplicações. Particularmente, os estudos de edição gênica e clonagem representam um grande avanço na utilização combinada de diversas TRAs para geração de modelos biomédicos para doenças humanas, demostrando o papel dessas técnicas para avanços científicos no que diz respeito à saúde humana.
Nonhuman Primates (NHPs) are considered important models for biomedical studies due to their high biological proximity with humans. The Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ARTs) represent an important tool to perform studies related to infertility, development of contraceptives, gestation and fetal development, fertility preservation in cancer patients, generation of experimental models through gene editing techniques, among others. The objective of this review is to discuss the main ARTs used in NHPs and their application. Among the most used techniques in NHPs, we can include collection and cryopreservation of semen, ovarian cycle monitoring, controlled ovarian stimulation and follicle aspiration, in vitro fertilization, intracytoplasmic sperm injection, artificial insemination, microinjections for gene editing, embryo biopsy, embryo cryopreservation, embryo transfer, pregnancy diagnosis, grafting of gonadal tissue, and cloning. The studies cited in this review illustrate the evolution of the ARTs and their applications. The gene editing and cloning studies, in particular, represent the great advancements on the combined use of several different ARTs for the generation of biomedical models for human diseases, demonstrating the role of these techniques in the scientific advancement with regards to human health.
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Humanos , Animales , Desarrollo Fetal , Fertilización In Vitro , Primates/fisiología , Técnicas Reproductivas AsistidasRESUMEN
Yellow fever is an important zoonotic viral disease that can be fatal for both human and nonhuman primates. We evaluated histopathologic changes in free-ranging neotropical primates naturally infected with yellow fever virus (YFV) compared with uninfected cohorts. The most frequent lesions in primates infected with YFV were hepatic changes characterized by midzonal necrosis with lipidosis and mild inflammation including lymphocytes, macrophages, plasma cells, and infrequently neutrophils. Importantly, severe necrotizing hepatic lesions were often observed in Alouatta sp. (howler monkeys), whereas Callithrix sp. (common marmosets) had nearly no hepatic changes. Moderate to severe hepatic necrosis was present in 21/23 (91%) of the YFV-positive Alouatta sp. compared with 10/29 (34%) of the YFV-positive Callithrix sp. (P < .0001; odds ratio = 20). Similarly, hepatitis was more intense in Alouatta sp. compared with Callithrix sp. Furthermore, the frequency of YFV infection was significantly higher in Alouatta sp. compared with Callithrix sp. or Sapajus sp. (capuchin monkeys). Therefore, these data support the notion that Alouatta sp. is highly susceptible to infection and YFV-induced lesions, whereas Callithrix sp. is susceptible to infection but has a lower frequency of YFV-induced lesions.
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Alouatta/virología , Callithrix/virología , Enfermedades de los Monos/patología , Fiebre Amarilla/veterinaria , Animales , Susceptibilidad a Enfermedades , Femenino , Hígado/patología , Hígado/virología , Masculino , Enfermedades de los Monos/virología , Fiebre Amarilla/patología , Fiebre Amarilla/virologíaRESUMEN
The appearance and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria in natural environments and wildlife are related to agricultural and livestock activities and are a global health and conservation problem. We assessed the presence of AMR genes in Escherichia coli isolated from black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra), sheep (Ovis aries), cattle (Bos taurus), and horses (Equus caballus) from a highly fragmented forest in southern Mexico. Fresh fecal samples were collected using swabs, seeded on eosin-methylene blue agar, and E. coli colonies identified by PCR; multiplex-PCR was performed on E. coli DNA for the detection of 10 AMR genes from four families (sulfonamides, tetracycline, ß-lactamase, and chloramphenicol). We detected E. coli in 94% (48/51) of fecal samples, of which 33% (16/48) tested positive for at least one AMR gene. We detected AMR genes in at least one individual from each sampled animal species, with the most prevalent genes being tet(B) 18% (9/48), sul2 14% (7/48), sul1, and blaTEM 12% (6/48). Sheep samples contained AMR genes from the four families of antibiotics detected in this study and 50% (5/10) tested positive for the presence of at least one gene. A total of 12% (2/16) of fecal samples from black howler monkeys tested positive for AMR genes. The presence of AMR genes in A. pigra and domestic animals has not been reported in the Balancán area of Tabasco, Mexico. Transmission of AMR bacteria from domestic animals to monkeys is rare; however, this is a potential health risk for wildlife and species conservation.
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Alouatta/microbiología , Animales Domésticos/microbiología , Farmacorresistencia Bacteriana/genética , Escherichia coli/efectos de los fármacos , Animales , Escherichia coli/genética , México , Bosque LluviosoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Establish baseline values for ophthalmic diagnostic tests in Sapajus libidinosus. METHODS: Ophthalmic diagnostic tests, namely Schirmer tear test 1 (STT-1), intraocular pressure (IOP), B-mode ultrasound, culture of the bacterial conjunctival microbiota, and conjunctival exfoliative cytology, were performed in 15 S. libidinosus. RESULTS: Mean values found were as follows: 2.50 ± 2.94 mm/min for the STT-1; 13.3 ± 3.32 mm Hg for the IOP; 2.47 ± 0.41 mm for the depth of the anterior chamber; 2.86 ± 0.96 mm for the axial length of the lens; 10.97 ± 0.48 mm for the depth of the vitreous chamber; and 16.32 ± 1.24 mm for the axial length of the eyeball. The bacterial genus most frequently found was Staphylococcus spp. Conjunctival cytology showed intermediate epithelial, squamous superficial epithelial, and keratinized cells. CONCLUSIONS: Determination of baseline values for eye measurements and ophthalmic tests will assist in the diagnosis of eye diseases in S. libidinosus monkeys.
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Cebinae/fisiología , Técnicas de Diagnóstico Oftalmológico/veterinaria , Pruebas Diagnósticas de Rutina/veterinaria , Oftalmopatías/veterinaria , Fenómenos Fisiológicos Oculares , Animales , Conjuntivitis Bacteriana/diagnóstico , Conjuntivitis Bacteriana/veterinaria , Técnicas de Diagnóstico Oftalmológico/instrumentación , Pruebas Diagnósticas de Rutina/instrumentación , Pruebas Diagnósticas de Rutina/métodos , Oftalmopatías/diagnóstico , Femenino , Presión Intraocular , Masculino , Valores de ReferenciaRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE AND BACKGROUND: The expression of periodontitis, including age of onset, extent, and severity is considered to represent an interaction of the individual's oral microbiome and host response to the microbial challenge that is modified by both genetics and environmental factors. The aim of this study was to determine the distribution of periodontitis in a population of nonhuman primates, to document features of familial distribution that could reflect heritability and transmission of microbes with enhanced virulence. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This report presents our findings from evaluation of periodontal disease bone defects in skulls from 569 animals (5-31 years of age) derived from the skeletons of the rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) of Cayo Santiago derived from eight matrilines over 6-9 generations. The distance from the base of alveolar bone to the cemento-enamel junction on 1st /2nd premolars and 1st /2nd molars from all four quadrants was evaluated as a measure of periodontal disease. Additionally, we documented the presence of periodontitis in 79 living descendants within these matrilines. RESULTS: The results demonstrated an increased extent and severity of periodontitis with aging across all matrilines. Extensive heterogeneity in disease expression was observed among the animals and this was linked to specific periodontitis susceptible matrilines. Moreover, we identified some matrilines in which the members appeared to show some resistance to more severe disease, even with aging. CONCLUSION: Linking these disease variations to multigenerational matriarchal family units supported familial susceptibility of periodontitis. This familial disease relationship was reinforced by the distribution of naturally-occurring periodontitis in the living descendants.
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Predisposición Genética a la Enfermedad/genética , Macaca mulatta/genética , Periodontitis/genética , Periodontitis/veterinaria , Filogenia , Cráneo/patología , Factores de Edad , Envejecimiento , Animales , Femenino , Heterogeneidad Genética , Masculino , Periodontitis/epidemiología , Periodontitis/patología , Puerto Rico/epidemiología , Índice de Severidad de la EnfermedadRESUMEN
Mapping yellow fever (YF) risk is often based on place of infection of human cases, whereas the circulation between nonhuman primates (NHP) and vectors is neglected. In 2008/2009, YF devastated NHP at the southern limit of the disease in the Americas. In view of the recent expansion of YF in Brazil, we modeled the environmental suitability for YF with data from 2008/2009 epizootic, the distribution of NHP (Alouatta spp.), and the mosquito (Haemagogus leucocelaenus) using the maximum entropy algorithm (Maxent) to define risk areas for YF and their main environmental predictors. We evaluated points of occurrence of YF based on dates of confirmed deaths of NHP in three periods, from October 2008 to: December 2008, March 2009, and June 2009. Variables with greatest influence on suitability for YF were seasonality in water vapor pressure (36%), distribution of NHP (32%), maximum wind speed (11%), annual mean rainfall (7%), and maximum temperature in the warmest month (5%). Models of early periods of the epizootic identified suitability for YF in localities that recorded NHP deaths only months later, demonstrating usefulness of the approach for predicting the disease spread. Our data supported influence of rainfall, air humidity, and ambient temperature on the distribution of epizootics. Wind was highlighted as a predicting variable, probably due to its influence on the dispersal of vectors infected with YF in fragmented landscapes. Further studies on the role of wind are necessary to improve our understanding of the occurrence of YF and other arboviruses and their dispersal in the landscape.
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Haplorrinos/virología , Mosquitos Vectores/virología , Fiebre Amarilla/veterinaria , Virus de la Fiebre Amarilla/aislamiento & purificación , Animales , Brasil/epidemiología , Ecosistema , Factores de Riesgo , Estaciones del AñoRESUMEN
Osteopathologies are a result of advanced age and decreased bone density and represent a global health problem. It is therefore important to generate models for longitudinal studies of the pathophysiology in order to improve early diagnosis and develop preventive therapies. For this kind of research, the use of computed tomography (CT) to evaluate bone health offers advantages over other techniques since it provides more complete information. The aim of this prospective, pilot study was to obtain measurements of the left femur from a population in captivity of 32 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in order to standardize the model for future research. Healthy subjects from 5 to 28 years old were chosen. Three groups with different ages were formed as follows: (1) 5-9 years, (2) 10-19 years, and (3) 20-28 years. Semi-automatic segmentation by threshold defined the regions of interest, which were subdivided in the range of 300-700 Hounsfield units (HU) for trabecular bone and >700 HU for cortical bone. Then, the proportional ratios of the volumes of trabecular bone and cortical bone were obtained. Significant differences (analysis of variance test) in the averages of Hounsfield units, cortical, and trabecular bone proportions from each age group proved that a decrease in bone density begins at approximately 20 years of age. The values presented here, as well as the method to obtain them from CT scans, can be used as a baseline in a primate model for long-term research in bone pathology diagnosis and treatment.
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Densidad Ósea , Fémur/fisiología , Macaca mulatta/fisiología , Tomografía Computarizada por Rayos X/veterinaria , Animales , Proyectos Piloto , Estudios Prospectivos , Tomografía Computarizada por Rayos X/métodosRESUMEN
OBJECTIVES: Since December 2016, Brazil has experienced an unusually large outbreak of yellow fever (YF). Whether urban transmission may contribute to the extent of the outbreak is unclear. The objective of this study was to characterize YF virus (YFV) genomes and to identify spatial patterns to determine the distribution and origin of YF cases in Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, the most affected Brazilian states during the current YFV outbreak. METHODS: We characterized near-complete YFV genomes from 14 human cases and two nonhuman primates (NHP), sampled from February to April 2017, retrieved epidemiologic data of cases and used a geographic information system to investigate the geospatial spread of YFV. RESULTS: All YFV strains were closely related. On the basis of signature mutations, we identified two cocirculating YFV clusters. One was restricted to the hinterland of Espírito Santo state, and another formed a coastal cluster encompassing several hundred kilometers. Both clusters comprised strains from humans living in rural areas and NHP. Another NHP lineage clustered in a basal relationship. No signs of adaptation of YFV strains to human hosts were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest sylvatic transmission during the current outbreak. Additionally, cocirculation of two distinct YFV clades occurring in humans and NHP suggests the existence of multiple sylvatic transmission cycles. Increased detection of YFV might be facilitated by raised awareness for arbovirus-mediated disease after Zika and chikungunya virus outbreaks. Further surveillance is required, as reemergence of YFV from NHPs might continue and facilitate the appearance of urban transmission cycles.
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Brotes de Enfermedades , Mutación , Enfermedades de los Primates/virología , Fiebre Amarilla/epidemiología , Virus de la Fiebre Amarilla/genética , Adolescente , Adulto , Anciano , Animales , Brasil/epidemiología , Niño , Preescolar , Evolución Molecular , Femenino , Genotipo , Humanos , Lactante , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Filogenia , Primates , Fiebre Amarilla/veterinaria , Fiebre Amarilla/virología , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Zika virus (ZIKV) emerged in the Americas in 2013. Limited antigenic variability of CHIKV and ZIKV may restrict urban transmission cycles due to population protective immunity. In Africa, sylvatic transmission cycles involving nonhuman primates (NHP) are known for CHIKV and ZIKV, causing cyclic reemergence in humans. To evaluate whether sylvatic cycles can be expected in Latin America, we tested 207 NHP collected between 2012 and 2017 in urban and peri-urban settings in Brazil for infection with ZIKV and CHIKV. No animal tested positive for viral RNA in genus-specific and species-specific reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) assays. In contrast, six animals (2.9%) from the families Atelidae, Callitrichidae, and Cebidae showed ZIKV-specific antibodies and 11 (5.3%) showed CHIKV-specific antibodies in plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT). Reactivity was monotypic against either ZIKV or CHIKV in all cases, opposing unspecific virucidal activity of sera. PRNT endpoint titers were low at 1:40 in all NHP, and positive specimens did not correspond to the likely dispersal route and time of introduction of both arboviruses. All antibody-positive samples were therefore tested against the NHP-associated yellow fever virus (YFV) and Mayaro virus (MAYV) and against the human-associated dengue virus (DENV) by PRNT. Two ZIKV-positive samples were simultaneously DENV positive and two CHIKV-positive samples were simultaneously MAYV positive, at titers of 1:40 to 1:160. This suggested cross-reactive antibodies against heterologous alphaviruses and flaviviruses in 24% of ZIKV-positive/CHIKV-positive sera. In sum, low seroprevalence, invariably low antibody titers, and the distribution of positive specimens call into question the capability of ZIKV and CHIKV to infect New World NHP and establish sylvatic transmission cycles. IMPORTANCE Since 2013, Zika virus (ZIKV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV) have infected millions of people in the Americas via urban transmission cycles. Nonhuman primates (NHP) are involved in sylvatic transmission cycles maintaining ZIKV and CHIKV in the Old World. We tested NHP sampled during 2012 to 2017 in urban and peri-urban areas severely affected by ZIKV and CHIKV in Brazil. Seroprevalence and antibody titers were low for both viruses. Additionally, we found evidence for infection by heterologous viruses eliciting cross-reactive antibodies. Our data suggest that urban or peri-urban NHP are not easily infected by ZIKV and CHIKV despite intense local transmission. These data may imply that the ZIKV and CHIKV outbreaks in the Americas cannot be sustained in urban or peri-urban NHP once human population immunity limits urban transmission cycles. Investigation of diverse animals is urgently required to determine the fate of the ZIKV and CHIKV outbreaks in the Americas.
RESUMEN
In January 2017, a yellow fever outbreak occurred in Espirito Santo, Brazil, where human immunization coverage is low. Histologic, immunohistologic, and PCR examinations were performed for 22 deceased nonhuman New World primates; typical yellow fever features were found in 21. Diagnosis in nonhuman primates prompted early public health response.