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BACKGROUND: Considering the challenges posed by nitrogen (N) pollution and its impact on food security and sustainability, it is crucial to develop management techniques that optimize N fertilization in croplands. Our research intended to explore the potential benefits of co-inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense and Bacillus subtilis combined with N application rates on corn plants. The study focused on evaluating corn photosynthesis-related parameters, oxidative stress assay, and physiological nutrient use parameters. Focus was placed on the eventual improved capacity of plants to recover N from applied fertilizers (AFR) and enhance N use efficiency (NUE) during photosynthesis. The two-year field trial involved four seed inoculation treatments (control, A. brasilense, B. subtilis, and A. brasilense + B. subtilis) and five N application rates (0 to 240 kg N ha-1, applied as side-dress). RESULTS: Our results suggested that the combined effects of microbial consortia and adequate N-application rates played a crucial role in N-recovery; enhanced NUE; increased N accumulation, leaf chlorophyll index (LCI), and shoot and root growth; consequently improving corn grain yield. The integration of inoculation and adequate N rates upregulated CO2 uptake and assimilation, transpiration, and water use efficiency, while downregulated oxidative stress. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that the optimum N application rate could be reduced from 240 to 175 kg N ha-1 while increasing corn yield by 5.2%. Furthermore, our findings suggest that replacing 240 by 175 kg N ha-1 of N fertilizer (-65 kg N ha-1) with microbial consortia would reduce CO2 emission by 682.5 kg CO2 -e ha-1. Excessive N application, mainly with the presence of beneficial bacteria, can disrupt N-balance in the plant, alter soil and bacteria levels, and ultimately affect plant growth and yield. Hence, highlighting the importance of adequate N management to maximize the benefits of inoculation in agriculture and to counteract N loss from agricultural systems intensification.

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Non-legume bioenergy crops can be fertilized with animal manures instead of mineral fertilizers, but the simultaneous application of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) with manures can increase nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. On the other hand, manure could increase soil organic C stocks and partly offset greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and global warming potential (GWP) of crop systems. We performed a two-year study in a biofuel cropping system with sunflower and canola to examine the effects of manure fertilization on grain yields and N use efficiency of crops, and on GWP and GHG intensity (GHGI) in no-till soils under subtropical conditions. The GWP and GHGI were calculated from measured methane (CH4) and N2O emissions and soil organic C stock change, and from estimated carbon dioxide emissions associated with agricultural inputs and farm operations. The following treatments were tested: (i) mineral fertilizer (MF); (ii) poultry manure (PM); (iii) pig deep-litter (PDL); and (iv) no-N control. The application rate of each treatment was adjusted to provide 60 kg available N ha-1 to crops. Grain yield and N accumulated by sunflower and canola were greater in fertilized treatments than in the control, and did not differ among N sources. However, crop N use efficiency was on average 50% lower with manures than MF. CH4 emissions were not affected by N sources, but N2O emissions increased as follows: control (1.37) < MF (2.04) < PDL (4.12) < PM (4.95 kg N ha-1). On the other hand, soil organic C stocks increased more rapidly with manures than MF, resulting in significantly lower GWP and GHGI with manures than MF after two years. These results indicate that animal manures can replace MF as the main source of N to non-legume oil crops and reduce net GHG emissions in biofuel cropping systems under subtropical conditions.

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The relationship between leaf photosynthesis and nitrogen is a critical production function for ecosystem functioning. Cultivated species have been studied in terms of this relationship, focusing on improving nitrogen (N) use, while wild species have been studied to evaluate leaf evolutionary patterns. A comprehensive comparison of cultivated vs wild species for this relevant function is currently lacking. We hypothesize that cultivated species show increased carbon assimilation per unit leaf N area compared with wild species as associated with artificial selection for resource-acquisition traits. We compiled published data on light-saturated photosynthesis (Amax ) and leaf nitrogen (LNarea ) for cultivated and wild species. The relationship between Amax and LNarea was evaluated using a frontier analysis (90th percentile) to benchmark the biological limit of nitrogen use for photosynthesis. Carbon assimilation in relation to leaf N was not consistently higher in cultivated species; out of 14 cultivated species, only wheat, rice, maize and sorghum showed higher ability to use N for photosynthesis compared with wild species. Results indicate that cultivated species have not surpassed the biological limit on nitrogen use observed for wild species. Future increases in photosynthesis based on natural variation need to be assisted by bioengineering of key enzymes to increase crop productivity.

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Increasing resource use efficiency is crucial for enhancement of agricultural productions and reducing environmental hazards. For this purpose, improvement of Nitrogen use efficiency is an effective approach. Not only N loss occurs in field but also in processing course of food utilization. The objective of this study was to evaluate N loss and efficiency from production to consumption for wheat and maize. For this purpose, data for the amount of applied nitrogen, acreage, yields, amount of returned residue were collected and a proportion of N allocated to different source of food or feed was also traced. Results showed that total N harvested by wheat and maize were 387 and 81.7 kt and N use efficiency for the same crops were 25 and 60%, respectively. Efficiency of N harvested by the crops was different based on the path used. Total N use efficiency in food production cycle for wheat and maize were 14.2 and 7.6%, respectively. Higher efficiency of N was observed in plant food production compared with animal feed. In general, N use efficiency in plant food production system was about 13 times higher than that of feed. For decreasing N loss in food production system, efficiency should be increased in the field and processing courses.(AU)

Aumentar a eficiência na utilização dos recursos é crucial para a valorização das produções agrícolas e reduzir os riscos ambientais. Para este efeito, a melhoria da eficiência de utilização de azoto é um método eficaz. Não apenas perdas de N acontecem em campo, mas também no processamento decurso de utilização dos alimentos. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as perdas de N e eficiência da produção ao consumo de trigo e milho. Para esses dados de propósito para a quantidade de nitrogênio aplicado, a área, o rendimento, a quantidade de resíduos devolvidos foram coletadas e uma proporção de N alocado para outra fonte de alimento ou ração também foi rastreado. Os resultados mostraram que o total de N colhido por trigo e milho foram 387 e 81.7 kte. A eficiência de utilização para as mesmas culturas foram de 25 e 60%, respectivamente. Eficiência de N colhidas pelas culturas foi diferente com base no caminho que foi utilizado. A eficiência total de N utilização no ciclo de produção de alimentos para o trigo e de milho foram 14,2 e 7,6%, respectivamente. Maior eficiência de N foi observada na produção de alimentos planta em comparação com rações para animais. Em geral, N eficiência de utilização em planta do sistema de produção de alimentos foi de cerca de 13 vezes maior do que a de alimentos para animais. Para diminuir as perdas de nitrogênio no sistema de produção de alimentos, aumentada nos cursos de campo e de processamento.(AU)

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Increasing resource use efficiency is crucial for enhancement of agricultural productions and reducing environmental hazards. For this purpose, improvement of Nitrogen use efficiency is an effective approach. Not only N loss occurs in field but also in processing course of food utilization. The objective of this study was to evaluate N loss and efficiency from production to consumption for wheat and maize. For this purpose, data for the amount of applied nitrogen, acreage, yields, amount of returned residue were collected and a proportion of N allocated to different source of food or feed was also traced. Results showed that total N harvested by wheat and maize were 387 and 81.7 kt and N use efficiency for the same crops were 25 and 60%, respectively. Efficiency of N harvested by the crops was different based on the path used. Total N use efficiency in food production cycle for wheat and maize were 14.2 and 7.6%, respectively. Higher efficiency of N was observed in plant food production compared with animal feed. In general, N use efficiency in plant food production system was about 13 times higher than that of feed. For decreasing N loss in food production system, efficiency should be increased in the field and processing courses.

Aumentar a eficiência na utilização dos recursos é crucial para a valorização das produções agrícolas e reduzir os riscos ambientais. Para este efeito, a melhoria da eficiência de utilização de azoto é um método eficaz. Não apenas perdas de N acontecem em campo, mas também no processamento decurso de utilização dos alimentos. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as perdas de N e eficiência da produção ao consumo de trigo e milho. Para esses dados de propósito para a quantidade de nitrogênio aplicado, a área, o rendimento, a quantidade de resíduos devolvidos foram coletadas e uma proporção de N alocado para outra fonte de alimento ou ração também foi rastreado. Os resultados mostraram que o total de N colhido por trigo e milho foram 387 e 81.7 kte. A eficiência de utilização para as mesmas culturas foram de 25 e 60%, respectivamente. Eficiência de N colhidas pelas culturas foi diferente com base no caminho que foi utilizado. A eficiência total de N utilização no ciclo de produção de alimentos para o trigo e de milho foram 14,2 e 7,6%, respectivamente. Maior eficiência de N foi observada na produção de alimentos planta em comparação com rações para animais. Em geral, N eficiência de utilização em planta do sistema de produção de alimentos foi de cerca de 13 vezes maior do que a de alimentos para animais. Para diminuir as perdas de nitrogênio no sistema de produção de alimentos, a eficiência deve ser aumentada nos cursos de campo e de processamento.

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In comparison to deciduous species, evergreen plants have lower leaf nutrient contents and higher leaf life span, important mechanisms for nutrient economy, allowing the colonization of low fertility soils. Strategies to conserve nitrogen in two semideciduous tropical forest tree species, with different leaf life spans were analyzed. The hypothesis was the fact that the two species would present different nitrogen conservation mechanisms in relation to chemical (total nitrogen, protein, chlorophyll, and proteolytic activity), functional (leaf life span, N-use efficiency, and N-resorption efficiency), morphological (specific leaf mass) leaf characteristics, and total nitrogen in the soil. Hymenaea courbaril L. presented lower nitrogen compounds in leaves, longer leaf life span, higher N-use efficiency, and higher specific leaf mass, while absorbing proportionally less nitrogen from the soil than Croton priscus Croizat. These characteristics can contribute for a better nitrogen economy strategy of H. courbaril. No relationship was found between leaf life span and N resorption efficiency, nor between leaf life span, protease activity and nitrogen mobilization. The electrophoretic profiles of proteolytic enzymes in young leaves of the two species presented more bands with enzymatic activity than other kinds of leaves.

Comparadas a espécies decíduas, as sempre-verdes têm menos nutrientes nas folhas, que também são mais longevas. Estes mecanismos são importantes para economia de nutrientes, e permitem a colonização de solos com baixa fertilidade. Foram analisadas estratégias de conservação de nitrogênio em duas espécies de floresta semidecídua, que aparentemente apresentavam longevidades foliares diferentes. Para isto foram comparados mecanismos químicos (concentrações de nitrogênio total, de proteína e clorofila e atividade proteolítica), funcionais (duração de vida das folhas, eficiência do uso de nitrogênio e eficiência de redistribuição de nitrogênio) e morfológico (massa foliar específica) de conservação de nitrogênio nas folhas e a concentração de nitrogênio no solo. Hymenaea courbaril L. apresentou menor concentração de compostos nitrogenados nas folhas, maior longevidade foliar, maior eficiência do uso do nitrogênio e maior massa foliar específica, além de ter retirado proporcionalmente menos nitrogênio do solo do que Croton priscus Croizat. Estas características podem contribuir com uma melhor estratégia de conservação de nitrogênio em H. courbaril. Não foi encontrada relação entre a duração de vida da folha e a eficiência de redistribuição de nitrogênio, ou entre a duração de vida da folha, atividade de proteases e mobilização de nitrogênio. As folhas jovens das duas espécies apresentaram mais bandas com atividades enzimáticas nos perfís eletroforéticos de enzimas proteolíticas.

RESUMEN

In comparison to deciduous species, evergreen plants have lower leaf nutrient contents and higher leaf life span, important mechanisms for nutrient economy, allowing the colonization of low fertility soils. Strategies to conserve nitrogen in two semideciduous tropical forest tree species, with different leaf life spans were analyzed. The hypothesis was the fact that the two species would present different nitrogen conservation mechanisms in relation to chemical (total nitrogen, protein, chlorophyll, and proteolytic activity), functional (leaf life span, N-use efficiency, and N-resorption efficiency), morphological (specific leaf mass) leaf characteristics, and total nitrogen in the soil. Hymenaea courbaril L. presented lower nitrogen compounds in leaves, longer leaf life span, higher N-use efficiency, and higher specific leaf mass, while absorbing proportionally less nitrogen from the soil than Croton priscus Croizat. These characteristics can contribute for a better nitrogen economy strategy of H. courbaril. No relationship was found between leaf life span and N resorption efficiency, nor between leaf life span, protease activity and nitrogen mobilization. The electrophoretic profiles of proteolytic enzymes in young leaves of the two species presented more bands with enzymatic activity than other kinds of leaves.

Comparadas a espécies decíduas, as sempre-verdes têm menos nutrientes nas folhas, que também são mais longevas. Estes mecanismos são importantes para economia de nutrientes, e permitem a colonização de solos com baixa fertilidade. Foram analisadas estratégias de conservação de nitrogênio em duas espécies de floresta semidecídua, que aparentemente apresentavam longevidades foliares diferentes. Para isto foram comparados mecanismos químicos (concentrações de nitrogênio total, de proteína e clorofila e atividade proteolítica), funcionais (duração de vida das folhas, eficiência do uso de nitrogênio e eficiência de redistribuição de nitrogênio) e morfológico (massa foliar específica) de conservação de nitrogênio nas folhas e a concentração de nitrogênio no solo. Hymenaea courbaril L. apresentou menor concentração de compostos nitrogenados nas folhas, maior longevidade foliar, maior eficiência do uso do nitrogênio e maior massa foliar específica, além de ter retirado proporcionalmente menos nitrogênio do solo do que Croton priscus Croizat. Estas características podem contribuir com uma melhor estratégia de conservação de nitrogênio em H. courbaril. Não foi encontrada relação entre a duração de vida da folha e a eficiência de redistribuição de nitrogênio, ou entre a duração de vida da folha, atividade de proteases e mobilização de nitrogênio. As folhas jovens das duas espécies apresentaram mais bandas com atividades enzimáticas nos perfís eletroforéticos de enzimas proteolíticas.