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Blending two or more materials to create better high-moisture meat analogues has been actively studied in the food science and technology field. Walnut protein is a high-quality plant-based protein resource, yet its full potential remains underexploited. Thus, this study focused on exploring the quality characteristics and fibrous structure formation mechanism of walnut protein (WP) and wheat gluten (WG) meat analogues during high-moisture extrusion cooking process. Results showed that the optimized WP and WG-blended high-moisture meat analogues exhibited a more pronounced anisotropic and oriented fibrous structure. The blending of WP and WG can protect the molecular chains from the thermal transition, and promote the aggregation of protein molecules mainly by enhancing the interaction between hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds, increasing the apparent viscosity and forming protein subunits with larger molecular weights (>100 kDa) to stabilize the newly formed conformation. Additionally, the content of α-helix was the highest among the secondary structures. This study provides a theoretical basis for the application of WG and WP to produce HMMAs with rich fibrous structures.

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With an increasing emphasis on health and environmental consciousness, there is a growing inclination toward plant protein-based meat substitutes as viable alternatives to animal meat. In the pursuit of creating diverse and functional plant protein-based substitutes, innovative plant proteins have been introduced in conjunction with soy protein isolate (SPI), encompassing pea protein isolate (PPI), rice bran protein (RBP), fava bean protein isolate (FPI), and spirulina protein isolate (SPPI). Notably, SPI-WG extrudates and SPI-PPI extrudates exhibited superior fiber structures (fiber degrees were 1.72 and 1.88, respectively), with coarse fibers in SPI-WG extrudates and fine, dense fibers in SPI-PPI extrudates. The addition of RBP, FPI and SPPI had minimal effect on fiber structure. Fresh SPI-FPI displayed the slowest rate of water loss, losing about 7.11% of their total weight in 5 h. Different plant proteins can be selected for the preparation of plant protein-based meat substitutes according to practical needs.

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India, a global leader in agriculture, faces sustainability challenges in feeding its population. Although primarily a vegetarian population, the consumption of animal derived proteins has tremendously increased in recent years. Excessive dependency on animal proteins is not environmentally sustainable, necessitating the identification of alternative smart proteins. Smart proteins are environmentally benign and mimic the properties of animal proteins (dairy, egg and meat) and are derived from plant proteins, microbial fermentation, insects and cell culture meat (CCM) processes. This review critically evaluates the technological, safety, and sustainability challenges involved in production of smart proteins and their consumer acceptance from Indian context. Under current circumstances, plant-based proteins are most favorable; however, limited land availability and impending climate change makes them unsustainable in the long run. CCM is unaffordable with high input costs limiting its commercialization in near future. Microbial-derived proteins could be the most sustainable option for future owing to higher productivity and ability to grow on low-cost substrates. A circular economy approach integrating agri-horti waste valorization and C1 substrate synthesis with microbial biomass production offer economic viability. Considering the use of novel additives and processing techniques, evaluation of safety, allergenicity, and bioavailability of smart protein products is necessary before large-scale adoption.

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As the lack of resources required to meet the demands of a growing population is increasingly evident, plant-based diets can be seen as part of the solution, also addressing ethical, environmental, and health concerns. The rise of vegetarian and vegan food regimes is a powerful catalyzer of a transition from animal-based diets to plant-based diets, which foments the need for innovation within the food industry. Vegetables and fruits are a rich source of protein, and bioactive compounds such as dietary fibres and polyphenols and can be used as technological ingredients (e.g., thickening agents, emulsifiers, or colouring agents), while providing health benefits. This review provides insight on the potential of plant-based ingredients as a source of alternative proteins, dietary fibres and antioxidant compounds, and their use for the development of food- and alternative plant-based products. The application of these ingredients on meat analogues and their impact on health, the environment and consumers' acceptance are discussed. Given the current knowledge on meat analogue production, factors like cost, production and texturization techniques, upscaling conditions, sensory attributes and nutritional safety are factors that require further development to fully achieve the full potential of plant-based meat analogues.

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Accompanied by the rapid growth of the global population and increasing public awareness of protein-rich foods, the market demand for protein-derived products is booming. Utilizing available technologies to make full use of meat by-products, such as scraps, trimmings, etc., to produce restructured meat products and explore emerging proteins to produce meat analogues can be conducive to alleviating the pressure on supply ends of the market. The present review summarizes diversified techniques (such as high-pressure processing, ultrasonic treatment, edible polysaccharides modification, enzymatic restructuring, etc.) that have been involved in restructuring meat protein-derived products as well as preparing meat analogues identified so far and classifying them into three main categories (physical, chemical and enzymatic). The target systems, processing conditions, effects, advantages, etc., of the included techniques, are comprehensively and systemically summarized and discussed, and their existing problems or developing trends are also briefly prospected. It can be concluded that a better quality of restructured products can be obtained by the combination of different restructuring technologies. This review provides a valuable reference both for the research and industrial production of restructured meat protein-derived products and analogues.

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The present study investigated thermal gelation of mixed sarcoplasmic (Sarc), myofibrillar (Myof), and pea proteins corresponding to partial meat replacements (0, 25, and 50%) by pea protein isolate (PPI) at reducing salt levels (0.6 â†’ 0.1 M NaCl) to understand in situ (simulated) structure-forming properties of hybrid meat analogues. The amount of soluble proteins in hybrids generally increased with salt concentrations and PPI substitution. While muscle proteins (mixed Sarc and Myof) had the strongest gelling capacity, hybrid proteins also exhibited moderate aggregation and gelling activity based on the sol→gel rheological transition and gel hardness testing. Sarc and pea 7S/11S globulins collectively compensated for the attenuated gelling capacity of mixed proteins due to diminishing Myof in the hybrids. Immobilized water within hybrid protein gels was tightly bonded (T2 from nuclear magnetic resonance), consistent with the dense and uniform microstructure observed. These findings offer a new knowledge base for developing reduced-salt hybrid meat analogues.

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Research regarding meat analogues is mostly based on formulation and process development. Information concerning their safety, shelf life, and long-term nutritional and health effects is limited. This article reviews the existing literature and analyzes potential hazards introduced or modified throughout the processing chain of plant-based meat analogues via extrusion processing, encompassing nutritional, microbiological, chemical, and allergen aspects. It was found that the nutritional value of plant-based raw materials and proteins extracted thereof increases along the processing chain. However, the nutritional value of plant-based meat analogues is lower than that of e.g., animal-based products. Consequently, higher quantities of these products might be needed to achieve a nutritional profile similar to e.g., meat. This could lead to an increased ingestion of undigestible proteins and dietary fiber. Although dietary fibers are known to have many positive health benefits, they present a hazard since their consumption at high concentrations might lead to gastrointestinal reactions. Even though there is plenty of ongoing research on this topic, it is still not clear how the sole absorption of metabolites derived from plant-based products compared with animal-based products ultimately affects human health. Allergens were identified as a hazard since plant-based proteins can induce an allergic reaction, are known to have cross-reactivities with other allergens and cannot be eliminated during the processing of meat analogues. Microbiological hazards, especially the occurrence of spore- and non-spore-forming bacteria, do not represent a particular case if requirements and regulations are met. Lastly, it was concluded that there are still many unknown variables and open questions regarding potential hazards possibly present in meat analogues, including processing-related compounds such as n-nitrosamines, acrylamide, and heterocyclic aromatic amino acids.

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In order to fully understand the nutritional heterogeneity of plant-based meat analogues and real meat, this review summarized their similarities and differences in terms of ingredients, nutrient contents, bioavailability and health impacts. Plant-based meat analogues have some similarities to real meat. However, plant-based meat analogues are lower in protein, cholesterol and VB12 but higher in dietary fiber, carbohydrates, sugar, salt and various food additives than real meat. Moreover, some nutrients in plant-based meat analogues, such as protein and iron, are less bioavailable. There is insufficient evidence that plant-based meat analogues are healthier, which may be related to the specific attributes of these products such as formulation and degree of processing. As things stand, it is necessary to provide comprehensive nutrition information on plant-based meat products so that consumers can make informed choices based on their nutritional needs.

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The global demand for high-quality animal protein faces challenges, prompting a surge in interest in plant-based meat analogues (PBMA). PBMA have emerged as a promising solution, although they encounter technological obstacles. This review discusses the technological challenges faced by PBMA from the viewpoint of plant proteins, emphasizing textural, flavor, color, and nutritional aspects. Texturally, PBMA confront issues, such as deficient fibrous structure, chewiness, and juiciness. Addressing meat flavor and mitigating beany flavor in plant protein are imperative. Furthermore, achieving a distinctive red or pink meat color remains a challenge. Plant proteins exhibit a lower content of essential amino acids. Future research directions encompass (1) shaping myofibril fibrous structures through innovative processing; (2) effectively eliminating the beany flavor; (3) developing biotechnological methodologies for leghemoglobin and plant-derived pigments; (4) optimizing amino acid composition to augment the nutritional profiles. These advancements are crucial for utilization of plant proteins in development of high-quality PBMA.

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The number of plant-based meat products on supermarket shelves around the world has grown in recent years however reproducing the sensory experience of eating meat remains a challenge. This study aims to evaluate the sensory gaps between animal and plant-based meat products, specifically burger-type products, from the Australian market. The sample set of 19 commercially available burgers comprises 8 animal-based burgers prepared using beef, chicken, kangaroo, pork, or turkey and 11 high protein plant-based burgers. Vegetable patties are beyond the scope of this study. A trained sensory panel (n = 14) determined the major differences in aroma, texture, flavor, and aftertaste between meat and meat analogues during oral processing, particularly those that may impact consumer acceptability. The animal-based burgers scored high for meaty (aroma), meaty (flavor), and umami but not legume, vegetative, bitterness, and lingering spice attributes. They also received higher average scores for juiciness, fattiness, and final moistness than the plant-based burgers but scored lower in cohesiveness. The plant-based burgers scored high for legume and bitterness but not meaty (aroma), meaty (flavor), and umami attributes. Improving current products and designing new products with desirable sensory properties will enhance consumer acceptability and reinforce recent growth in the plant-based meats market.

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In this first work, commercial steak-like (n = 3) and cured meat (n = 3) analogues with different legume and cereal formulations were studied and compared to their animal-based (n = 3) counterparts. Plant-based products showed lower protein content than meat controls but a good amino acidic profile even though the sum of essential amino acids of plant-cured meats does not fulfill the requirements set by the Food and Agriculture Organization for children. A comparable release of soluble proteins and peptides in the digestates after in vitro digestion was observed in meat analogues as meat products, whereas the digestibility of proteins was lower in plant-based steaks and higher in plant-based cured meats than their counterparts. The overall protein quality and digestibility of products are related to both the use of good blending of protein sources and processes applied to produce them. An adequate substitution of meat with its analogues depends mostly on the quality of raw materials used, which should be communicated to consumers.

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The development of plant-based meat analogues has become a significant challenge for the food industry in recent years due to the increasing demand for sustainable and healthier proteins in the context of a global protein transition. Plant-based meat analogues imitate the visual, textural, and chemical properties of traditional meat products and are required to closely resemble meat to appeal to consumers. In addition, consumers demand natural, clean-label, and nutritional, and healthy products. To address these challenges, the food industry must develop highly healthy, nutritious, and E-number-free meat analogue products. Understanding the functionality of each ingredient and its role in the food matrix is crucial to being a key player in the innovation of the meat analogue market. This review provides updated information on the primary ingredients utilized for the development of plant-based burger meat alternatives and their functionality. The key components of meat analogue burgers are outlined, including plant proteins, binding agents, fats and oils, flavorings, colorings, preservatives, fortificants, and clean-label considerations.

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A food adhesive comprising tannic acid (TA) and soybean protein isolate (SPI) was developed to establish a cohesive bond between soy protein gel and simulated fat. The impact of varying TA concentrations and pH levels on the adhesive's rheology, thermal stability, chemical structure, and tensile strength were investigated. Rheological results revealed a gradual decrease in adhesive viscosity with increasing TA content. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermal gravimetric (TG) results indicated that the stability of the adhesive improved with higher TA concentrations, reaching its peak at 0.50% TA addition. The incorporation of TA resulted in the cross-linking of amino group in unfolded SPI molecules, forming a mesh structure. However, under alkaline conditions (pH 9), adhesive viscosity and stability increased compared to the original pH. This shift was due to the disruption of the SPI colloidal charge structure, an increase in the stretching of functional groups, further unfolding of the structure, and an enhanced binding of SPI to TA. Under the initial pH conditions, SPI reacted with TA's active site to form covalent crosslinked networks and hydrogen bonds. In alkaline condition, beyond hydrogen and ionic bonding, the catechol structure was oxidized, forming an ortho-quinone that crosslinked SPI and created a denser structure. Tensile strength measurements and freeze-thaw experiments revealed that the adhesive exhibited maximum tensile strength and optimal adhesion with 0.75% TA at pH 9, providing the best overall performance. This study provides a new formulation and approach for developing plant-based meat analogues adhesives.

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Fungal proteins are excellent novel protein resources due to their high nutritional value and biological activity. In this study, a non-toxic strain of Penicillium limosum with a high biomass yield, protein, and essential amino acid contents, was isolated from wheat Qu (solid-state fermentation starter culture). Pea protein isolate (PPI) and P. limosum mycelial protein powder were extruded to prepare high-moisture meat analogues (HMMA), and their structural and functional properties were evaluated. Compared with 100% PPI, the addition of 5% mycoprotein enhanced the viscosity, gelling properties, chewiness, fibrous degree and in vitro protein digestibility (68.65%) of HMMA. Protein aggregates formed during high temperature extrusion, which increased the oil absorption capacity of HMMA (5% MY substitution). Conversely, their water absorption capacity indices were reduced by 5%. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the functional application of novel fungal alternative proteins.

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We are undergoing a food transformation with the introduction of plant-based meat analogues, but little is known about their chemical characteristics. This study aimed to elucidate the Maillard reactions in plant-based meat burger alternatives (PBMBA). For this purpose, NMR-based metabolomics and targeted MS analysis of Maillard and dehydroalanine pathway markers were conducted on six PBMBA prototypes with different proportions of high-moisture protein extrudates, low-moisture extrudates and pea protein on a commercial PBMBA and on a meat burger before and after cooking. Results revealed that higher levels of Maillard reaction markers were present in PBMBAs in the uncooked state, with lower levels formed during cooking compared with conventional meat. The metabolite profile disclosed that the distinct pattern of the Maillard reaction could be attributed to different substrate availability, but data also revealed that pre-processing of the plant protein affects the presence of Maillard reaction products in PBMBAs.

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The rising demand for plant-based meat analogues as alternatives to animal products has sparked interest in understanding the complex interplay between their structural and mechanical properties. The ability to manipulate the processing parameters and protein blend composition offers fundamental insights into the texturization process and holds economic and sustainable implications for the food industry. Consequently, the correlation between mechanical and structural properties in meat analogues is crucial for achieving consumer satisfaction and successful market penetration, providing comprehensive insights into the textural properties of meat analogues and their potential to mimic traditional animal produce. Our study delves into the relationship between structural and mechanical anisotropy in meat analogues produced using high moisture extrusion cooking, which involves blending protein, water, and other ingredients, followed by a controlled heating and cooling process to achieve a fibrous texture akin to traditional meat. By employing techniques such as scanning small-angle X-ray scattering, scanning electron microscopy, and mechanical testing we investigate the fibrous structure and its impact on the final texture of meat analogues. We show that textural and structural anisotropy is reflected on the mechanical properties measured using tensile and dynamic mechanical techniques. It is demonstrated that the calculated anisotropy indexes, a measure for the degree of textural and structural anisotropy, increase with increasing protein content. Our findings have significant implications for the understanding and development of plant-based meat analogues with structures that can be tuned to closely resemble the animal meat textures of choice, thereby enabling consumers to transition to more sustainable dietary choices while preserving familiar eating habits.

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The effect of Haematococcus pluvialis (HP) (0.25∼1.25 %) as a colorant during high moisture extrusion (50 %) on the texture and microstructural properties of soy protein-based high moisture meat analogs (HMMA) was evaluated. Furthermore, the stability of HP-induced meat like color of the HMMA as a function of light exposure, freeze/thawing, frozen storage and cooking temperature and duration was investigated. The addition of HP reduced the elasticity of HMMA but enhanced its hardness, chewiness, and resilience. HP addition at low levels promoted the flexible and disordered regions within the protein secondary structure while excessive HP addition was unfavorable for protein cross-linking. The optimal degree of texturization was achieved with 0.75 % HP. Sensory evaluations revealed that HMMA with 1 %HP had a color similar to fresh beef sirloin, while HMMA with 0.25 % HP had a color closer to fresh pork loin. Light exposure induced the greatest color loss of the meat analogs compared with the cooking and frozen storage. The a* value of HMMA containing 1.25 % HP decreased by 30 % during the 14 days of light exposure. Frozen storage at darkness efficiently preserved the meat-like color of the extrudates. Overall, HP was found as promising colorant for HMMA production but the storage condition of the extrudates should be carefully optimized.

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Developing meat analogues of superior amino acid (AA) profiles in the food industry is a challenge as plant proteins contain less of some essential AA than animal proteins. Mathematical optimisation models such as linear/non-linear programming models were used to overcome this challenge and create high-moisture meat analogues (HMMA) with AA profiles as close as possible to chicken breast meat. The effect on the physiochemical properties and specific mechanical energy (SME) of the HMMA was investigated. The AA content of HMMA was generally lower than chicken. Strong intermolecular bonds present in the globulin fraction could hinder protein acid hydrolysis of HMMA. Plant proteins also affect the HMMA colour as certain AA forms Maillard reaction products with higher browning intensity. Lastly, different characteristics of plant proteins resulted in different SME values under the same extrusion conditions. While mathematical programming can optimise plant protein combinations, fortification is required to match the AA profile of HMMA to an animal source.

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Eating behavior is critical for maintaining energy homeostasis. Previous studies have found that plant-based meat analogues increased diet intake in mice compared with animal meat under a free feeding mode, however the reasons were unclear. To explore the underlying mechanisms of plant-based meat analogues increasing diet intake, mice were fed animal or plant-based pork and beef analogue diets, respectively. Biochemical and histological analyses were performed to evaluate appetite-regulating hormones and gastrointestinal motility function. Peptiomics and GC-IMS were applied to identify key substances. We found that the intake of plant-based meat analogues significantly enhanced the gastrointestinal motility function of mice. The long-term intake (68 days) of plant-based meat analogues significantly increased the muscle layer thickness of the duodenum and jejunum of mice; the activity of gastrointestinal cells of Cajal were also promoted by upregulating the expression of c-kit related signals as compared to animal meat; plant-based meat analogues intake markedly enhanced the signal intensity of the intestinal neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) by upregulating the expression of 5-HT synthase and receptors but downregulating its transporter and catabolic enzyme in the intestine. Moreover, plant-based meat analogues intake significantly increased levels of appetite-stimulating factors in the peripheral or hypothalamus but reduced levels of appetite-suppressing factors compared with animal meat. Specific volatile compounds were significantly associated with appetite regulating factors. Among them, 7 substances such as linalool have a potential promoting effect on food intake. Besides, different digestive peptides in gastrointestinal tract may affect eating behavior mainly through the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway, exerting hormone-like effects or influencing endocrine cell secretion. These findings preliminarily clarified the mechanism of plant-based meat analogues promoting diet intake and provided a theoretical basis for a reasonable diet.

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Lupin is a nutritious, yet undervalued grain used as a fodder and food crop. In the present study, native lupin flour (LF), lupin protein concentrate (LPC), and lupin protein isolate (LPI) were combined (70% LPI:LPC blend ratios [30:70, 50:50, and 70:30] and 30% LF constant fraction), extruded at high moisture (45-55%), and shaped with a long cooling die (800 mm) to obtain texturized meat analogues (TMAs) with fibrous structures. The characteristics of TMAs (e.g., hardness, water hydration capacity) depended heavily on water content, blend ratios (LPI:LPC), and to a lesser extent, the long cooling die temperature. Color changes (i.e., L*, b*) were mostly attributed to variations in blend ratios (LPI:LPC). Microstructure analysis showed that TMAs with higher water content (55%) were more likely to have thinner walls and smaller void thickness. Fluorescence imagery revealed that TMAs with lower LPI content presented more homogeneous structures. These findings show that reasonable amounts (30% d.m.) of native lupin flour can be incorporated into meat analogues by maintaining a sufficiently high protein content (>50% d.m.) to trigger the formation of fibrous structures.