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Improper open dumping of solid wastes caused different serious problems in fast-growing towns in Ethiopia like Kombolcha town. This unsuitable solid waste dumping management brings health challenges by spreading diseases, contaminating water, polluting air, and spreading of different disease-causing insects such as mosquitoes. Therefore, selecting suitable solid waste dumping site analysis (SWDSA) is very essential to minimize these negative effects related to improper solid waste dumping in such towns. The primary goal of this study is to use optical images and the AHP model to find appropriate solid waste dumping sites in Kombolcha Town. The nine governing factors such as soil texture, geology, faults, groundwater well points (GWWPs, rivers, roads, built-up, Land use land cover (LULC) and slopes, were considered to achieve the aim of this study. These factors were extracted and delineated from the various optical data such as Landsat 8 images, digital elevation model, Google Earth images, geological map, soil map, and also field survey. The factor classes and factors were ranked and weighted utilizing a comparison matrix according to importance and finally by applying the AHP spatial analysis extension tool in Arc GIS software the SWDSA map of the study area was generated. Therefore, as a result of this study about 19.4 km2 (22.8 %), 22.8 km2 (26.8 %), 20.5 km2 (24.1 %), 16.1 km2 (18.9 %), and 6.2 km2 (7.3 %) of the study area falls in not suitable, less suitable, moderately suitable, suitable and highly suitable ranges respectively. Based on the result of this further analysis, D is the 1st suitable site with a score is 83.6 %, site B is the 2nd suitable site is a score is 83.2 %, site C is the 3rd suitable site with a score of 65.1 % and site A is the last suitable site and scored 60.4 %. Therefore, this study strongly recommends that the waste management municipal office of Kombolcha town and other concerned government and non-government bodies apply and consider these identified the best suitable solid waste dumping sites.

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BACKGROUND: Violence against women is a global public health problem that has numerous adverse effects. However, published literature regarding violence against housemaids during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia is lacking. The current study aims to explore the experiences of violence and associated factors among housemaids in Ethiopia. The findings may be useful to the design appropriate policies, programs and strategies to reduce the problem. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from January to March, 2021 in Kombolcha Town, Ethiopia. A total of 215 housemaids aged 14 years and older were included in the study using a simple random sampling technique. A multivariable logistic regression model with 95% CI (confidence interval) was applied to identify significant factors of physical and sexual violence. Variables with a P-value < 0.05 were declared as factors significantly associated with violence. RESULTS: Among 215 housemaids, 33.49% (95% CI: 27.13-39.85%) reported physical violence and 21.4% (95% CI: 15.87-26.92) reported sexual violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, housemaids aged 19-23 years (AOR = 2.64, 95% CI: 1.01-6.89), who had a male employer (AOR = 2.39, 95% CI: 1.05-5.45), whose employers chewed chat (Catha edulis) (AOR = 3.78, 95% CI: 1.73-8.29), or drank alcohol (AOR = 2.90, 95% CI: 1.17-7.17) experienced more physical violence. Sexual violence was also associated with employers' alcohol consumption (AOR = 9.72, 95% CI: 3.12-20.31), employers' chat chewing (AOR = 7.40, 95% CI: 2.26-14.21) and male employers (AOR = 3.23, 95% CI: 1.22-8.52). CONCLUSION: The findings indicate that one in five housemaids and one in three housemaids experienced sexual violence and physical violence, respectively. Housemaids aged 19-23 years, having a male employer, having an employer who chewed chat (Catha edulis) or who drank alcohol were factors associated with physical violence, whereas employers' alcohol consumption, employers' chat chewing and male employers were factors associated with sexual violence.

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Introduction: The use of swimming pool water for recreation, rehabilitation, and athletics is widespread around the world, especially in large Cities and Towns. However, poorly managed swimming pool water can facilitate the spread of illnesses connected to recreational water. Despite this, there is no evidence on quality of swimming pools water in Kombolcha Town. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of swimming pools water in Kombolcha Town. Methods: A laboratory-based cross-sectional study was conducted from February to April, 2021 in Kombolcha Town. A total of 90 water samples were collected from the three outdoor swimming pools. The collected data of both physicochemical and bacteriological parameters were entered into Microsoft Excel 2010 and analyzed using SPSS version 25.0. One-way ANOVA was used to test whether there were statistically significant differences between different swimming pools. The level of significance was declared at a p-value of <0.05. Results: In this study, out of all the pool water samples that were examined, 37.8% had pH values between 7.2 and 7.8, 36.7% had temperatures between 21°C and 32°C, and 26.7% had turbidity values that were within the WHO standard. Furthermore, only 16.7% of the pool water samples showed residual chlorine levels of 2-3 mg/L. In addition, only 27.8, 35.6, and 32.2% of the samples, respectively, met the WHO criterion for total coliform, fecal coliform, and heterotrophic plate count. Conclusion: The result indicates that most pool water samples did not fulfill both the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of the WHO standard limit for swimming pools. Thus, it is crucial to clean and regularly check the pool water, apply pool safety requirements, and raise pool user's awareness about the danger of pool water pollution through training.

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Objective: Urinary tract infection has catastrophic health outcome among diabetes mellitus patients. This study was conducted to investigate prevalence of bacterial uropathogens, their antibiogram, and associated factors among diabetes mellitus patients in Kombolcha town. Method: Cross-sectional study was done from February to April 2020. A total of 282 study participants were involved and simple random technique was applied for enrollment of subjects. Well-constructed and pre-tested questionnaire was utilized to collect the data. Five to ten milliliters of mid-stream urine specimen was collected for microbiological data. Each sample was inoculated into cystine lactose electrolyte deficient medium, incubated overnight in aerobic atmosphere at 37°C for 24 h and finally biochemical tests were carried out. According to Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method, the antimicrobial susceptibilities pattern of the bacteria was performed on Mueller-Hinton Agar. The data were analyzed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 23. Descriptive statistics, bi-variable, and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed. For statistical significance association, p value ⩽ 0.05 with a 95% confidence interval was considered. Results: The general prevalence of urinary tract infection among study participants was 20.2% (57/282). Being female and having merchant occupation had a statistically significant association. Gram-negative bacteria accounted for 70.2% (40/57) and the leading isolate was Escherichia coli, followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Coagulase negative Staphylococcus. About 57.5% gram-negative and 35.3% gram-positive bacteria showed multidrug resistance. Conclusion: The general prevalence of significant bacteriuria was found to be consistent with similar studies conducted in different areas. The higher multidrug resistance rate was observed for the isolated bacteria. Health-care professionals should give due attention and follow rational antibiotic prescription practices to treat these infections.

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Objective: Unhealthy behaviors during swimming exposes at risk of recreational water-associated diseases. The swimming pool users are the high-risk group for getting and transmitting the diseases. Thus, conducting a study on swimming pool users' health-related behaviors is crucial to prevent the transmission of recreational water-associated diseases. Methods: This cross-sectional study was employed among 140 randomly selected swimming pool users from April 1st to 30th, 2021 in Kombolcha Town. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaire and an on-the-spot-observational checklist. The collected data were entered to EpiData version 4.6 and exported to SPSS version 25 for data cleaning and analysis. Determinants of health-related behaviors were identified by using a multivariable logistic regression model at a p-value < 0.05. Results: The overall good health-related behavior among swimming pool users was 41.4% (95% CI: 33.6-49.3). Out of the total 140 swimming pool users, 55% (95% CI: 46.4-62.9) had good knowledge about health risks during swimming. Good knowledge about health risks during swimming (AOR = 9.64; 95% CI: 3.14-29.61), educational status of college or above (AOR = 6.52; 95% CI: 1.76-24.10) and age being > 28 years (AOR = 6.49; 95% CI: 2.34-18) were factors significantly associated with good health-related behaviors. Conclusion: The finding of the study showed that the majority of the swimming pool users had poor health-related behaviors. Thus, Kombolcha Town Health Bureau and swimming pool managers should give attention to this population to enhance health-related behaviors through addressing the significant predictors.

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Objective: Respiratory diseases are one of the main morbidities worldwide, especially in developing countries due to a lack of occupational safety and health measures. Therefore, this study aims to assess the prevalence and risk factors of chronic respiratory symptoms among street sweepers in Dessie and Kombolcha town, Ethiopia. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was used from 15 February to 16 March 2019 Gregorian calendar, among 392 participants. An interviewer-based questionnaire was used. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used, and variables with p value less than 0.05 in the final model were taken as associated factors. Results: The prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms among street sweepers was 178 (45.4%) with the prevalence of cough 67 (16.54%), phlegm 60 (15.4%), wheezing 127 (32.3%), breathlessness 83 (21.3%), and chest pain 55 (14.3%). Respiratory symptoms were associated with not using face mask (p < 0.001, adjusted odds ratio = 0.31, 95% confidence interval: 0.17-0.57), monthly income (p = 0.013, adjusted odds ratio = 2.1, 95% confidence interval: 1.1-3.8), work experience (p < 0.001, adjusted odds ratio = 3.6, 95% confidence interval: 2.1-6.2), previous sinusitis (p < 0.001, adjusted odds ratio = 8.0, 95% confidence interval: 2.8-22), and educational status (p < 0.001, adjusted odds ratio = 8.6, 95% confidence interval: 3.0-24.4). Conclusion: Respiratory symptoms were prevalent among street sweepers in Dessie and Kombolcha towns, Northeast Ethiopia. The non-use of respiratory equipment, educational status, working experience, and past sinusitis was identified factors.

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Background: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) enhances the survival of HIV-infected patients by reducing viral load and increasing CD4. As CD4 count increases, patients are more protected against opportunistic infections. In developing countries including Ethiopia, there were limited studies about the survival benefit of ART particularly no study in Kombolcha Town. Thus, this study was aimed to address the gap. Methods: A hospital-based retrospective cohort study was employed in Kombolcha town among 510 patients' records from January 2015 to December 2019. A systematic random sampling technique was used to select patient records. The collected data were checked, coded, and entered into Epidata version 4.6 and exported to Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 26 for data cleaning and analysis. Kaplan-Meier was used to estimate the probability of category of each predictor and a log rank test was used to compare survival curves. Bivariate and multivariate Cox-regression were employed using a 95% CI and variables with p-value <0.05 were declared as predictors of poor survival time. Results: In this cohort, out of 510 HIV-infected patients, 39 (7.65%) were died, and 471 (92.35%) were censored. Fair drug adherence (AHR=6.88, 95% CI: 4.31-24.04), Poor drug adherence (AHR=9.58, 95% CI: 8.72-30.97), CD4 count <50 cell/µL (AHR=9.38, 95% CI: 1.48-59.31), CD4 count 50-99 cell/µL (AHR=9.67, 95% CI: 1.80-51.73), bedridden (AHR=9.5, 95% CI: 4.49-18.66), opportunistic infections (AHR=4.58, 95% CI: 1.20-5.65), weight <60kg (AHR=2.48, 95% CI:1.59, 10.38), WHO stage III (AHR=3.56, 95% CI: 1.71-17.89), WHO stage IV (AHR=4.42, 95% CI:1.75-25.93) were predictors of poor survival time. Conclusion: The Kaplan-Meier result showed that the estimated median survival time of patients after ART initiation in Kombolcha town was higher (32 months) as compared to other studies. Poor drug adherence, WHO stage III & IV, Lower baseline CD4 count, presence of opportunistic infections, weight <60kg, and being bedridden were predictors of poor survival time. Thus, early initiation of ART ought to be encouraged among HIV-infected patients and good patient counseling on the level of adherence should be strengthened.

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PURPOSE: COVID-19 has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. The unprecedented global health crisis we are facing is affecting all parts of society and changing lives and livelihoods. International efforts have been applied to prevent the spread of the virus through personal hygiene, masks and social distancing as prevention measures. The aim of this study is to assess the level of perceived attitude and practice and associated factors among Dessie and Kombolcha Town administrations, north-east Ethiopia. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional population-based survey was conducted using a structured interview-administered questionnaire from June 7 to 14, 2020, among Dessie and Kombolcha town residents. The data were entered to Epi Info-7.1 and exported to SPSS-23. Bivariable logistic regression was done, and variables with p < 0.25 were entered a multivariable logistic regression analysis model. Statistically significant level was declared at 95% CI and a p-value <0.05. RESULTS: A total of 828 participants were involved with a response rate of 98%. Of the total participants, 29.35% (95% CI: 26.3, 32.5) had poor attitude and 41.79% (95% CI: 38.5, 45.3) had poor practice towards COVID-19 prevention. Multivariable regression results showed a significant association with being male, unable to read and write, and mass media with attitude and rural residence, being widowed, a merchant, family size 4-6, spring water source and information heard from social media with practice. CONCLUSION: Our findings revealed that there are inappropriate practices and poor attitudes towards COVID-19 prevention among Dessie and Kombolcha residents.

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OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to assess nutritional practice and its associated factors among lactating mothers in Kombolcha Town, South Wollo Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia, 2017. DESIGN AND SETTING: A community-based cross-sectional study design supplemented with qualitative research was conducted at Kombolcha Town from October 23 to November 10, 2017. A systematic sampling technique was used to select the study participants from listed households and purposive sampling was used for the qualitative inquiry. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 425 lactating mothers were interviewed using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. The data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 23. For the qualitative data, thematic content analysis was used. Multiple logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between nutritional practice with independent variables. THE RESULTS: Lactating mothers who had good nutritional practice and knowledge were 28.7% (95% CI: 24.9%, 33.5%) and 52.0% (95% CI: 47.1%, 57.6%) respectively. This study revealed that government-employed mothers (AOR=6.0, 95% CI: 1.953, 18.485) and mothers with good nutritional knowledge (AOR=3.12, 95% CI: 1.832, 5.318) had statistically significant associations with nutritional practices of lactating mothers. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The nutritional practices and knowledge of lactating mothers were low in the study area. The mother's occupation and nutritional knowledge were significantly associated with nutritional practice. Hence, the provision of maternal nutritional education regarding a healthy diet, and timely and regular dissemination of nutritional information were recommended.

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OBJECTIVE: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients are highly vulnerable to microbial and parasitic diseases due to the immune-suppression. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and assess the associated risk factors of intestinal parasites in HIV/AIDS patients who are under anti-retroviral therapy in Kombolcha, North-Central Ethiopia. RESULT: A total of 223 HIV sero-positive individuals who are on ART in Kombolcha Health Centre were examined for intestinal parasites. Of the total study participants 153 (68.6%) were females, 205 (91.9%) were urban resident and 116 (52.0%) were married. Intestinal parasites were detected in 31 (13.9%) of the 223 study participants. Nine different intestinal parasite species were detected and the most prevalent intestinal parasite detected was E. histolytica, which accounts 7.2% (16/223). Majority of study participants had the habit of washing their hand before meal and after toilet 215 (96.4%) and most of the study participants 126 (56.5%) had private toilet.

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Kombolcha, a city in Ethiopia, exemplifies the challenges and problems of the sub-Saharan countries where industrialization is growing fast but monitoring resources are poor and information on pollution unknown. This study monitored metals Cr, Cu, Zn, and Pb concentrations in five factories' effluents, and in the effluent mixing zones of two rivers receiving discharges during the rainy seasons of 2013 and 2014. The results indicate that median concentrations of Cr in the tannery effluents and Zn in the steel processing effluents were as high as 26,600 and 155,750 µg/L, respectively, much exceeding both the USEPA and Ethiopian emission guidelines. Cu concentrations were low in all effluents. Pb concentrations were high in the tannery effluent, but did not exceed emission guidelines. As expected, no metal emission guidelines were exceeded for the brewery, textile and meat processing effluents. Median Cr and Zn concentrations in the Leyole river in the effluent mixing zones downstream of the tannery and steel processing plant increased by factors of 52 (2660 compared with 51 µg Cr/L) and 5 (520 compared with 110 µg Zn/L), respectively, compared with stations further upstream. This poses substantial ecological risks downstream. Comparison with emission guidelines indicates poor environmental management by industries and regulating institutions. Despite appropriate legislation, no clear measures have yet been taken to control industrial discharges, with apparent mismatch between environmental enforcement and investment policies. Effluent management, treatment technologies and operational capacity of environmental institutions were identified as key improvement areas to adopt progressive sustainable development.

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INTRODUCTION: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is one of the most serious public health and development challenges in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia. A particular challenge for prevention strategies has been the emergence of hotspot areas. Therefore, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome programs should not be based on national level statistics, but need to be more focused geographically. Kombolcha is one of the high spot areas with different projects and development corridors. Hence, the aim of this study is to assess the trend of HIV infection rates among patients who visited Africa Service Committee clinic from 2005 to 2014. METHODS: An institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted from January 1 to January 30, 2016. All records of new patients enrolled from February 8, 2005 to December 31, 2014 were reviewed. Data on sociodemographic information, risky sexual behavior, and HIV test result were collected from each study participant using data collection format. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 20.0. A multivariate logistic regression model was used to identify risk factors of HIV infection. RESULTS: The overall HIV infection was 10.8% (2,233/20,674). The rate of infection varied from 13.3% in 2005 to 4.5% in 2014, and its trend had significantly declined from 2008 to 2014. Urban residence (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 2.53; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.22-5.25), patients who ever had intercourse with penetration (AOR: 5.62; 95% CI: 1.11-28.57), and those who had marriage experience (AOR: 11.65; 95% CI: 4.2-32.3) were more infected with HIV. CONCLUSION: The trend of HIV infection significantly reduced in the last 10 years in Kombolcha area. However, the HIV infection still remains high (4.5%) that needs intervention of those who had marriage experience, risky sexual behavior, and urban dwellers.

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This study was carried out from October 2012 to end of February 2013 in and around Kombolcha, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia, using a total of 201 neonatal calves aged 1 day to 4 months and suffering from diarrhea. The objectives of the study were to isolate Escherichia coli from diarrheic calves, and to determine E. coli biotypes and risk factors associated with its isolation. The fecal samples were collected, transported, and processed following standard microbiological procedures. Seventy-four isolates of E. coli were identified. Yellowish diarrhea, younger age, and low-colostrum feeding were significantly associated with rate of E. coli isolation (P < 0.05). Then the 74 isolates of E. coli were biotyped using fermentation of 9 sugars and grouped into 12 biotypes; the most dominant was biotype III (36.8 %). Finally, by comparing with studies elsewhere, from the 12 isolated biotypes, 3 of them were suggested to be enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), entherotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), and adhesion and effacing E. coli (AEEC) pathogenic strains. The present study showed that E. coli accounted for 37 % of calf diarrhea, with very diverse biotypes.

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