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In certain tetraploid species resulting from interspecific hybridization, one parent's subgenome is known to selectively undergo DNA loss. The molecular mechanisms behind this remain unclear. In our study, we compared the genomes of a standard diploid species with two allotetraploid species from the Xenopus genus, both possessing L (longer) and S (shorter) homoeologous subgenomes. We observed substantial gene losses and intergenic DNA deletions in both the S and L subgenomes of the tetraploid species. Gene losses were around 1,000 to 3,000 for L and 4,000 to 6,000 for S, with especially prominent losses in the S subgenome. Many of these losses likely occurred shortly after interspecific hybridization in both L/S subgenomes. We also deduced frequent large inversions in the S subgenome. Upon reassessing transposon dynamics using updated genome databases, we reaffirmed heightened DNA transposon activity during the hybridization, as previously reported. We next investigated whether S subgenome-biased DNA loss could be correlated with the activation of DNA transposons following hybridization. Notably, distinct patterns were observed in the dynamics of DNA transposons between the L and S subgenomes. Several DNA transposon subfamilies correlated positively with DNA deletions in the S subgenome and negatively in the L subgenome. Based on these results, we propose a model that, upon and after hybridization between two related diploid Xenopus species, the mixture of their genomes resulted in the derepression of DNA transposons, especially in the S subgenome, leading to selective DNA loss in the S subgenome.

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MAIN CONCLUSION: The leaf color asymmetry found in the reciprocal hybrids C. hystrix × C. sativus (HC) and C. sativus × C. hystrix (CH) could be influenced by the CsPPR gene (CsaV3_1G038250.1). Most angiosperm organelles are maternally inherited; thus, the reciprocal hybrids usually exhibit asymmetric phenotypes that are associated with the maternal parent. However, there are two sets of organelle genomes in the plant cytoplasm, and the mechanism of reciprocal differences are more complex and largely unknown, because the chloroplast genes are involved besides mitochondrial genes. Cucumis spp. contains the species, i.e., cucumber and melon, which chloroplasts and mitochondria are maternally inherited and paternally inherited, respectively, serving as good materials for the study of reciprocal differences. In this study, leaf color asymmetry was observed in the reciprocal hybrids (HC and CH) derived from C. sativus (2n = 14, CC) and C. hystrix (2n = 24, HH), where the leaves of HC were found to have reduced chlorophyll content, abnormal chloroplast structure and lower photosynthetic capacity. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the chloroplast development-related genes were differentially expressed in leaf color asymmetry. Genetic analysis showed that leaf color asymmetry was caused by the maternal chloroplast genome. Comparative analysis of chloroplast genomes revealed that there was no mutation in the chloroplast genome during interspecific hybridization. Moreover, a PPR gene (CsaV3_1G038250.1) with RNA-editing function was found to be involved in the regulation of leaf color asymmetry. These findings provide new insights into the regulatory mechanisms of asymmetric phenotypes in plant reciprocal crosses.

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Polyploids are essential in plant evolution and species formation, providing a rich genetic reservoir and increasing species diversity. Complex polyploids with higher ploidy levels often have a dosage effect on the phenotype, which can be highly detrimental to gametes, making them rare. In this study, offspring plants resulting from an autoallotetraploid (RRRC) derived from the interspecific hybridization between allotetraploid Raphanobrassica (RRCC, 2n = 36) and diploid radish (RR, 2n = 18) were obtained. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using C-genome-specific repeats as probes revealed two main genome configurations in these offspring plants: RRRCC (2n = 43, 44, 45) and RRRRCC (2n = 54, 55), showing more complex genome configurations and higher ploidy levels compared to the parental plants. These offspring plants exhibited extensive variation in phenotypic characteristics, including leaf type and flower type and color, as well as seed and pollen fertility. Analysis of chromosome behavior showed that homoeologous chromosome pairing events are widely observed at the diakinesis stage in the pollen mother cells (PMCs) of these allopolyploids, with a range of 58.73% to 78.33%. Moreover, the unreduced C subgenome at meiosis anaphase II in PMCs was observed, which provides compelling evidence for the formation of complex allopolyploid offspring. These complex allopolyploids serve as valuable genetic resources for further analysis and contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the formation of complex allopolyploids.

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Aegilops longissima and Ae. sharonensis, being classified into the Sitopsis section of genus Aegilops, are distinct species both taxonomically and ecologically. Nevertheless, earlier observations indicate that the two species are not reproductively isolated to full extent and can inter-bred upon secondary contact. However, the genomic underpinnings of the morpho-ecological differentiation between the two foci species remained unexplored. Here, we resequenced 31 representative accessions of the two species and conducted in-depth comparative genomic analyses. We demonstrate recurrent and ongoing natural hybridizations between Ae. longissima and Ae. sharonensis, and depict features of genome composition of the resultant hybrids at both individual and population levels. We also delineate genomic regions and candidate genes potentially underpinning the differential morphological and edaphic adaptations of the two species. Intriguingly, a binary morphology was observed in the hybrids, suggesting existence of highly diverged genomic regions that remain uneroded by the admixtures. Together, our results provide new insights into the molding effects of interspecific hybridization on genome composition and mechanisms preventing merge of the two species.

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Cotton (Gossypium species) has received considerable interest from the geneticists, cytologists and evolutionary biologists since the last more than a century. Here, we explore the genetics of petal spot in the interspecific derivatives involving tetraploid and diploid cottons; and confirm the location of gene governing petal spot phenotype on chromosome A7 by demonstrating co-segregation of SSR marker NAU 2186 with petal spot phenotype. The presence of petal spot was observed to be dominant over its absence. Petal spot inheritance showed significant deviation from the expected Mendelian ratio in all the segregating populations indicating segregation distortion. The distortion was biased towards the hirsutum parent which has important implications from introgression point of view. We also report a strong association between petal spot and petal margin coloration phenotypes. Extant American cotton varieties generally lack petal spot and margin coloration phenotypes. These petal characteristics can serve as morphological markers during germplasm characterization.

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Genome size variation is a crucial aspect of plant evolution, influenced by a complex interplay of factors. Repetitive elements, which are fundamental components of genomic architecture, often play a role in genome expansion by selectively amplifying specific repeat motifs. This study focuses on Amomum, a genus in the ginger family (Zingiberaceae), known for its 4.4-fold variation in genome size. Using a robust methodology involving PhyloNet reconstruction, RepeatExplorer clustering, and repeat similarity-based phylogenetic network construction, we investigated the repeatome composition, analyzed repeat dynamics, and identified potential hybridization events within the genus. Our analysis confirmed the presence of four major infrageneric clades (A-D) within Amomum, with clades A-C exclusively comprising diploid species (2n = 48) and clade D encompassing both diploid and tetraploid species (2n = 48 and 96). We observed an increase in the repeat content within the genus, ranging from 84% to 89%, compared to outgroup species with 75% of the repeatome. The SIRE lineage of the Ty1-Copia repeat superfamily was prevalent in most analyzed ingroup genomes. We identified significant difference in repeatome structure between the basal Amomum clades (A, B, C) and the most diverged clade D. Our investigation revealed evidence of ancient hybridization events within Amomum, coinciding with a substantial proliferation of multiple repeat groups. This finding supports the hypothesis that ancient hybridization is a driving force in the genomic evolution of Amomum. Furthermore, we contextualize our findings within the broader context of genome size variations and repeatome dynamics observed across major monocot lineages. This study enhances our understanding of evolutionary processes within monocots by highlighting the crucial roles of repetitive elements in shaping genome size and suggesting the mechanisms that drive these changes.

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Extant Old World camels (genus Camelus) contributed to the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and West for thousands of years.1,2 Although many remains have been unearthed,3,4,5 we know neither whether the prevalent hybridization observed between extant Camelus species2,6,7 also occurred between extinct lineages and the ancestors of extant Camelus species nor why some populations became extinct while others survived. To investigate these questions, we generated paleogenomic and stable isotope data from an extinct two-humped camel species, Camelus knoblochi. We find that in the mitochondrial phylogeny, all C. knoblochi form a paraphyletic group that nests within the diversity of modern, wild two-humped camels (Camelus ferus). In contrast, they are clearly distinguished from both wild and domesticated (Camelus bactrianus) two-humped camels on the nuclear level. Moreover, the divergence pattern of the three camel species approximates a trifurcation, because the most common topology is only slightly more frequent than the two other possible topologies. This mito-nuclear phylogenetic discordance likely arose due to interspecific gene flow between all three species, suggesting that interspecific hybridization is not exclusive to modern camels but a recurrent phenomenon throughout the evolutionary history of the genus Camelus. These results suggest that the genomic complexity of Old World camels' evolutionary history is underestimated when considering data from only modern species. Finally, we find that C. knoblochi populations began declining prior to the last glacial maximum and, by integrating palaeoecological evidence and stable isotope data, suggest that this was likely due to failure to adapt to a changing environment.

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Hybridization is one of the key processes shaping lineage diversification, particularly in regions that experienced strong climate oscillations. The alpine biome with its rich history of glacial-interglacial cycles and complex patterns of species distribution shifts offers an excellent system to investigate the impact of gene flow on population dynamics and speciation, important issues for evolutionary biology and biodiversity conservation. In this study, we combined genomic data (DArTseq), chloroplast markers, and morphology to examine phylogenetic relationships and the permeability of species boundaries and their evolutionary outcomes among the alpine extremophilic species of Puccinellia (Poaceae) in the Pamir Mountains, a part of the Mountains of Central Asia biodiversity hotspot. We determined the occurrence of interspecific hybrids between P. himalaica and P. pamirica, which demonstrated almost symmetric ancestry from their parental species and did not show signals of introgression. According to our integrative revision, the natural hybrids between P. himalaica and P. pamirica should be classified as Puccinellia ×vachanica (pro species). Using approximate Bayesian computation for population history inference, we uncovered that P. himalaica hybridized with P. pamirica independently in multiple localities over the Holocene. Hybrids inherited the fine-scale genetic structure from their parental species, which developed these patterns earlier, during the Late Pleistocene. Hybridization had different consequences for the involved parental lineages, likely playing an important role in a continuing decline of P. himalaica in the Pamir Mountains over the Holocene. Our results show that P. himalaica should be considered a critically endangered species in the Pamir Mountains and could also be retreating across its entire range of distribution in High Mountain Asia. Using a comparative phylogeographic framework, we revealed the risk of extinction of a cold-adapted alpine species in a global biodiversity hotspot. This study highlights that genomics could unravel diversity trends under climate change and provides valuable evidence for conservation management.

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Artificial hybrids between cultivated Avena species and wild Avena macrostachya that possess genes for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses can be important for oat breeding. For the first time, a comprehensive study of genomes of artificial fertile hybrids Avena sativa × Avena macrostachya and their parental species was carried out based on the chromosome FISH mapping of satellite DNA sequences (satDNAs) and also analysis of intragenomic polymorphism in the 18S-ITS1-5.8S rDNA region, using NGS data. Chromosome distribution patterns of marker satDNAs allowed us to identify all chromosomes in the studied karyotypes, determine their subgenomic affiliation, and detect several chromosome rearrangements. Based on the obtained cytogenomic data, we revealed differences between two A. macrostachya subgenomes and demonstrated that only one of them was inherited in the studied octoploid hybrids. Ribotype analyses showed that the second major ribotype of A. macrostachya was species-specific and was not represented in rDNA pools of the octoploids, which could be related to the allopolyploid origin of this species. Our results indicate that the use of marker satDNAs in cytogenomic studies can provide important data on genomic relationships within Avena allopolyploid species and hybrids, and also expand the potential for interspecific crosses for breeding.

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BACKGROUND: Interspecific hybridisation is a powerful tool for increasing genetic diversity in plant breeding programmes. Hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum, 2n = 42) × barley (Hordeum vulgare, 2n = 14) intergeneric hybrids can contribute to the transfer of agronomically useful traits by creating chromosome addition or translocation lines as well as full hybrids. Information on the karyotype of hybrid progenies possessing various combinations of wheat and barley chromosomes is thus essential for the subsequent breeding steps. Since the standard technique of chromosome in situ hybridisation is labour-intensive and requires specific skills. a routine, cost-efficient, and technically less demanding approach is beneficial both for research and breeding. RESULTS: We developed a Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (MPCR) method to identify individual wheat and barley chromosomes. Chromosome-specific primer pairs were designed based on the whole genome sequences of 'Chinese Spring' wheat and 'Golden Promise' barley as reference cultivars. A pool of potential primers was generated by applying a 20-nucleotide sliding window with consecutive one-nucleotide shifts on the reference genomes. After filtering for optimal primer properties and defined amplicon sizes to produce an ordered ladder-like pattern, the primer pool was manually curated and sorted into four MPCR primer sets for the wheat A, B, and D sub-genomes, and for the barley genome. The designed MPCR primer sets showed high chromosome specificity in silico for the genome sequences of all 18 wheat and barley cultivars tested. The MPCR primers proved experimentally also chromosome-specific for the reference cultivars as well as for 13 additional wheat and four barley genotypes. Analyses of 16 wheat × barley F1 hybrid plants demonstrated that the MPCR primer sets enable the fast and one-step detection of all wheat and barley chromosomes. Finally, the established genotyping system was fully corroborated with the standard genomic in situ hybridisation (GISH) technique. CONCLUSIONS: Wheat and barley chromosome-specific MPCR offers a fast, labour-friendly, and versatile alternative to molecular cytogenetic detection of individual chromosomes. This method is also suitable for the high-throughput analysis of distinct (sub)genomes, and, in contrast to GISH, can be performed with any tissue type. The designed primer sets proved to be highly chromosome-specific over a wide range of wheat and barley genotypes as well as in wheat × barley hybrids. The described primer design strategy can be extended to many species with precise genome sequence information.

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To improve the ε-PL production in wild-type strains of Streptomyces. albulus, Streptomyces. noursei, Streptomyces. rochei and Streptomyces. yunnanensis, the interspecific hybridization based on protoplast fusion was first performed. Two-species hybridizations failed to obtain hybrids with significant increase in ε-PL production, but four-species hybridizations succeed in acquiring many high-yield hybrids. 16S rDNA homology alignment and RAPD confirmed that the hybrid HX17 was restructured by integrating gene fragments from S. albulus and S. rochei with S. noursei as the carrier. S. noursei HX17 was subsequently suffered from mutagenesis and genome shuffling combining with multiple antibiotic resistance, and a mutant S. noursei GX6 was obtained with ε-PL yield of 2.23 g/L in shake-flask fermentation. In fed-batch fermentation, the ε-PL production of GX6 reached 47.2 g/L, which was increased by 95.6% to 136.8% over the wild parents. Ribosomal genes associated with antibiotics were sequenced and majority of mutant strains had mutations at different sites, indicating that the increase of antibiotic resistance was strongly associated with them. This research proved that combining interspecific hybridization with multiple antibiotic resistance was as an effective approach to rapidly improve the ε-PL production in Streptomyces species.

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Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) is an important wheat subspecies mainly cultivated in Europe before the 20th century that has contributed to modern wheat breeding as a valuable genetic resource. However, relatively little is known about the origins and maintenance of spelt populations. Here, using resequencing data from 416 worldwide wheat accessions, including representative spelt wheat, we demonstrate that European spelt emerged when primitive hexaploid wheat spread to the west and hybridized with pre-settled domesticated emmer, the putative maternal donor. Genomic introgression regions from domesticated emmer confer spelt's primitive morphological characters used for species taxonomy, such as tenacious glumes and later flowering. We propose a haplotype-based "spelt index" to identify spelt-type wheat varieties and to quantify utilization of the spelt gene pool in modern wheat cultivars. This study reveals the genetic basis for the establishment of the spelt wheat subspecies in a specific ecological niche and the vital role of the spelt gene pool as a unique germplasm resource in modern wheat breeding.

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Incorporating the centromere-specific histone H3 protein CENH3 into the centromeric nucleosomes is indispensable for accurate centromere function and balanced chromosome segregation in most eukaryotes, including higher plants. In the cell nuclei of interspecific hybrids, divergent centromeric DNAs cohabit and lead the corresponding parental chromosomes through the mitotic and meiotic cell divisions. Depending on the transmission of the parental chromosomes carrying the CENH3-encoding genes, CENH3 proteins from one or both parents may be present in these hybrids. The incorporation of parental CENH3 proteins into the divergent centromeres and their role in the chromosome elimination process in interspecific hybrids is still poorly understood. Here, we produced wheat × barley F1 hybrids that carried different combinations of barley chromosomes with genes encoding for either one (αCENH3) or both barley CENH3 protein variants (α- and ßCENH3). We generated specific antibodies distinguishing between the wheat CENH3 proteins and barley αCENH3 and applied them together with FISH probes to detect the precise pattern of parental CENH3 deposition into the wheat and barley centromeric nucleosomes. Analysis of somatic and meiotic nuclei of the wheat × barley hybrids revealed the plasticity of the maternal (wheat) CENH3 proteins to become incorporated into the paternal (barley) centromeric nucleosomes. However, no evidence for paternal CENH3 plasticity was detected in this study. The significance of the unilateral centromere plasticity and possible patterns of CENH3 incorporation into centromeres in interspecific hybrids are discussed.

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For peanut, the lack of stable cytological markers is a barrier to tracking specific chromosomes, elucidating the genetic relationships between genomes and identifying chromosomal variations. Chromosome mapping using single-copy oligonucleotide (oligo) probe libraries has unique advantages for identifying homologous chromosomes and chromosomal rearrangements. In this study, we developed two whole-chromosome single-copy oligo probe libraries, LS-7A and LS-8A, based on the reference genome sequences of chromosomes 7A and 8A of Arachis duranensis. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis confirmed that the libraries could specifically paint chromosomes 7 and 8. In addition, sequential FISH and electronic localization of LS-7A and LS-8A in A. duranensis (AA) and A. ipaensis (BB) showed that chromosomes 7A and 8A contained translocations and inversions relative to chromosomes 7B and 8B. Analysis of the chromosomes of wild Arachis species using LS-8A confirmed that this library could accurately and effectively identify A genome species. Finally, LS-7A and LS-8A were used to paint the chromosomes of interspecific hybrids and their progenies, which verified the authenticity of the interspecific hybrids and identified a disomic addition line. This study provides a model for developing specific oligo probes to identify the structural variations of other chromosomes in Arachis and demonstrates the practical utility of LS-7A and LS-8A.

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This study was designed to elucidate the physiological responses of three Lotus forage accessions to alkaline stress, and the influence of inoculating with Pantoea eucalypti endophyte strain on alkaline stress mitigation. A diploid L. corniculatus (Lc) accession, L. tenuis (Lt), and the interspecific hybrid Lt × Lc obtained from these two parental lines were exposed to alkaline stress (pH 8.2). Both Lt and the Lt × Lc hybrid are alkaline-tolerant compared to Lc, based on observations that dry mass was not reduced under stress, and there were no chlorosis symptoms on leaf blades. In all three Lotus accessions, Fe2+ concentration under stress decreased in aerial parts and simultaneously increased in roots. Inoculation with P. eucalypti considerably increased Fe2+ content in shoots of all three Lotus forage species under alkaline treatment. Photochemical efficiency of PSII was affected in Lc accession only when exposed to alkaline treatment. However, when cultivated under alkalinity with inoculation, plants recovered and had photosynthetic parameters equivalent to those in the control treatment. Together, the results highlight the importance of inoculation with P. eucalypti, which contributes significantly to mitigating alkaline stress. All results provide useful information for improving alkaline tolerance traits of Lotus forage species and their interspecific hybrids.

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BACKGROUND: Drought is one of the important abiotic stresses that can significantly reduce crop yields. In India, about 24% of Brassica juncea (Indian mustard) cultivation is taken up under rainfed conditions, leading to low yields due to moisture deficit stress. Hence, there is an urgent need to improve the productivity of mustard under drought conditions. In the present study, a set of 87 B. carinata-derived B. juncea introgression lines (ILs) was developed with the goal of creating drought-tolerant genotypes. METHOD: The experiment followed the augmented randomized complete block design with four blocks and three checks. ILs were evaluated for seed yield and its contributing traits under both rainfed and irrigated conditions in three different environments created by manipulating locations and years. To identify novel genes and alleles imparting drought tolerance, Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) analysis was carried out. Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS) approach was used to construct the linkage map. RESULTS: The linkage map consisted of 5,165 SNP markers distributed across 18 chromosomes and spanning a distance of 1,671.87 cM. On average, there was a 3.09 cM gap between adjoining markers. A total of 29 additive QTLs were identified for drought tolerance; among these, 17 (58.6% of total QTLs detected) were contributed by B. carinata (BC 4), suggesting a greater contribution of B. carinata towards improving drought tolerance in the ILs. Out of 17 QTLs, 11 (64.7%) were located on the B genome, indicating more introgression segments on the B genome of B. juncea. Eight QTL hotspots, containing two or more QTLs, governing seed yield contributing traits, water use efficiency, and drought tolerance under moisture deficit stress conditions were identified. Seventeen candidate genes related to biotic and abiotic stresses, viz., SOS2, SOS2 like, NPR1, FAE1-KCS, HOT5, DNAJA1, NIA1, BRI1, RF21, ycf2, WRKY33, PAL, SAMS2, orf147, MAPK3, WRR1 and SUS, were reported in the genomic regions of identified QTLs. CONCLUSIONS: The significance of B. carinata in improving drought tolerance and WUE by introducing genomic segments in Indian mustard is well demonstrated. The findings also provide valuable insights into the genetic basis of drought tolerance in mustard and pave the way for the development of drought-tolerant varieties.

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Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is the most important natural fiber source in the world. The genetic potential of cotton can be successfully and efficiently exploited by identifying and solving the complex fundamental problems of systematics, evolution, and phylogeny, based on interspecific hybridization of cotton. This study describes the results of interspecific hybridization of G. herbaceum L. (A1-genome) and G. mustelinum Miers ex Watt (AD4-genome) species, obtaining fertile hybrids through synthetic polyploidization of otherwise sterile triploid forms with colchicine (C22H25NO6) treatment. The fertile F1C hybrids were produced from five different cross combinations: (1) G. herbaceum subsp. frutescens × G. mustelinum; (2) G. herbaceum subsp. pseudoarboreum × G. mustelinum; (3) G. herbaceum subsp. pseudoarboreum f. harga × G. mustelinum; (4) G. herbaceum subsp. africanum × G. mustelinum; (5) G. herbaceum subsp. euherbaceum (variety A-833) × G. mustelinum. Cytogenetic analysis discovered normal conjugation of bivalent chromosomes in addition to univalent, open, and closed ring-shaped quadrivalent chromosomes at the stage of metaphase I in the F1C and F2C hybrids. The setting of hybrid bolls obtained as a result of these crosses ranged from 13.8-92.2%, the fertility of seeds in hybrid bolls from 9.7-16.3%, and the pollen viability rates from 36.6-63.8%. Two transgressive plants with long fiber of 35.1-37.0 mm and one plant with extra-long fiber of 39.1-41.0 mm were identified in the F2C progeny of G. herbaceum subsp. frutescens × G. mustelinum cross. Phylogenetic analysis with 72 SSR markers that detect genomic changes showed that tetraploid hybrids derived from the G. herbaceum × G. mustelinum were closer to the species G. mustelinum. The G. herbaceum subsp. frutescens was closer to the cultivated form, and its subsp. africanum was closer to the wild form. New knowledge of the interspecific hybridization and synthetic polyploidization was developed for understanding the genetic mechanisms of the evolution of tetraploid cotton during speciation. The synthetic polyploids of cotton obtained in this study would provide beneficial genes for developing new cotton varieties of the G. hirsutum species, with high-quality cotton fiber and strong tolerance to biotic or abiotic stress. In particular, the introduction of these polyploids to conventional and molecular breeding can serve as a bridge of transferring valuable genes related to high-quality fiber and stress tolerance from different cotton species to the new cultivars.

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KEY MESSAGE: Imbalanced chromosomes and cell cycle arrest, along with down-regulated genes in DNA damage repair and sperm cell differentiation, caused pollen abortion in synthetic allodiploid Brassica juncea hybrids. Interspecific hybridization is considered to be a major pathway for species formation and evolution in angiosperms, but the occurrence of pollen abortion in the hybrids is common, prompting us to recheck male gamete development in allodiploid hybrids after the initial combination of different genomes. Here, we investigated the several key meiotic and mitotic events during pollen development using the newly synthesised allodiploid B. juncea hybrids (AB, 2n = 2× = 18) as a model system. Our results demonstrated the partial synapsis and pairing of non-homologous chromosomes concurrent with chaotic spindle assembly, affected chromosome assortment and distribution during meiosis, which finally caused difference in genetic constitution amongst the final tetrads. The mitotic cell cycle arrest during microspore development resulted in the production of anucleate pollen cells. Transcription analysis showed that sets of key genes regulating cyclin (CYCA1;2 and CYCA2;3), DNA damage repair (DMC1, NBS1 and MMD1), and ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (SINAT4 and UBC) were largely downregulated at the early pollen meiosis stages, and those genes involved in sperm cell differentiation (DUO1, PIRL1, PIRL9 and LBD27) and pollen wall synthesis (PME48, VGDH11 and COBL10) were mostly repressed at the late pollen mitosis stages in the synthetic allodiploid B. juncea hybrids (AB). In conclusion, this study elucidated the related mechanisms affecting pollen fertility during male gametophyte development at the cytological and transcriptomic levels in the synthetic allodiploid B. juncea hybrids.

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Chinese cabbage is considered as one of the most important cruciferous vegetables in South Korea because of its use in salads, kimchi, and Korean cuisine. Secondary metabolites were quantified in three Chinese cabbage varieties: 65065, interspecific hybrid of Chinese cabbage × red cabbage exhibiting a deep purple color; 85772, interspecific hybrid of Chinese cabbage × red mustard exhibiting a reddish-purple color; and a typical Chinese green cabbage cultivar "CR Carotene" (Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis cv. CR Carotene). A total of 54 metabolites (2 amines, 2 sugar alcohols, 2 sugar phosphates, 6 carbohydrates, 18 amino acids, 13 organic acids, 8 phenolic compounds, and 3 carotenoids) were detected in 85772. Of them, 52 metabolites excluding ß-carotene and 9-cis-ß-carotene, and 51 metabolites excluding leucine, ß-carotene, and 9-cis-ß-carotene, were detected in 65065 and CR Carotene, respectively. Amino acid content was the highest in 85772, followed by 65065 and CR Carotene. The cultivars 65065 and 85772 contained high levels of phenolic compounds and total anthocyanins. Cyanidin-, pelargonidin-, and petunidin-type anthocyanins were detected in 65065 and 85772. However, delphinidin-type anthocyanins which typically impart a deep purple color were identified only in the deep purple phenotype 65065. Furthermore, the total anthocyanin content was the highest in 85772 (4.38 ± 0.65 mg g -1 dry weight) followed by that in 65065 (3.72 ± 0.52 mg g-1 dry weight). Antibacterial and antioxidant analyses revealed remarkable antibacterial effects of the purple cultivars against pathogens Vibrio parahaemolyticus (KCTC 2471), Bacillus cereus (KCTC 3624), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (KCCM 11803), Staphylococcus aureus (KCTC 3881), Chryseobacterium gleum (KCTC 2094), and Proteus mirabilis (KCTC 2510)] and methicillin-resistant pathogenic strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (0826, 0225, 0254, 1113, 1378, 1731, p01827, and p01828) compared with the antibacterial effects of CR Carotene. Furthermore, 65065 and 85772 exhibited significantly higher antioxidant activity than that of the CR Carotene. Therefore, the novel purple Chinese cabbages (65065 and 85772), derived from interspecific hybridization, are potentially favorable alternatives to the typical green Chinese cabbage, given the higher content of amino acids, phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, and carotenoids, as well as an increased ability to scavenge free radicals and inhibit pathogen growth.

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