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PURPOSE: The flea Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae), parasitizes dogs and cats globally, acting as a vector for various pathogens affecting both animals and humans. Growing interest in environmentally friendly, plant-based products prompted this study. The aim of the study was to determine the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) from Copaifera reticulata, Citrus paradisi, Lavandula hybrida and Salvia sclarea, assessing their insecticidal and repellent properties, determining lethal concentrations (LC50 and LC90), and evaluating residual efficacy in vitro against Ctenocephalides felis felis. METHODS: Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector analyzed EO composition. In vitro tests involved preparing EO solutions at various concentrations. Ten specimens from each life stage (egg, larva, pupa, adult) were used for insecticidal activity assessment. Adulticidal activity was assessed using 10 cm2 filter paper strip, each treated with 0.200 mL of the test solution. Immature stages activities were evaluated using 23.76 cm2 discs of the same filter paper, each treated with 0.470 mL of the test solution. Mortality percentage was calculated using (number of dead insects × 100) / number of incubated insects. Probit analysis calculated LC50 values with a 95% confidence interval. RESULTS: Major EO constituents were ß-caryophyllene (EOCR), linalool (EOLH), linalyl acetate (EOSS), and limonene (EOCP). LC50 values were obtained for all stages except for the essential oil of C. paradisi. All oils showed repellent activity at 800 µg/cm2. OECR exhibited greater residual efficacy. CONCLUSION: Each EO demonstrated superior insecticidal activity against specific C. felis felis stages.

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Sylvatic plague is a widespread, primarily flea-vectored disease in western North America. Because plague is highly lethal to endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes, BFFs) and the prairie dogs (Cynomys spp., PDs) on which BFFs depend for habitat and prey, minimizing the impacts of plague is a priority at BFF reintroduction sites. We developed a new, flour-based bait pellet containing 0.84 mg of fipronil and weighing ∼1.25 g (FipBits). We measured the degree and duration of flea control on black-tailed PDs (C. ludovicianus) in Montana and on Gunnison's PDs (C. gunnisoni) in Arizona, USA from 2018-2020. FipBits were distributed on treated plots one time at a rate of 125/ha. Fleas were virtually eliminated in Montana from 1 mo posttreatment to 1 yr later and remained substantially depressed 2 yr posttreatment. With the split colony design, we probably underestimated the degree of flea control achieved with FipBits due to crossover edge effects along the arbitrary line dividing the plots. Flea control in Arizona was significant from 1 mo posttreatment to 1 yr later, but flea abundance had recovered by 2 yr posttreatment. Flea control was evaluated from 2020-2021 in South Dakota, USA on four plots treated with three concentrations of fipronil in FipBits (0.68, 0.71, and 0.83 mg/FipBit). Fleas were essentially eliminated for 10 mo on the 0.83-mg plot and were substantially reduced on the two 0.71-mg plots. Fleas were reduced on the 0.68-mg plot, but the degree of control was less than observed on other treated plots. Impacts of plague on PDs and BFFs would probably be greatly reduced by the levels of flea control observed with FipBits. Options for expanded FipBit evaluations are being pursued for what may become a highly practical, affordable, and effective plague mitigation tool.

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Fleas and ticks are among the main ectoparasites that affect pets. The indiscriminate and incorrect use of chemical antiparasitics may be related to increased insect resistance and environmental contamination, requiring prospection for active ingredients that are less harmful to animals, humans and the environment. The use of essential oils and their isolated compounds has been reported as a potential alternative to synthetic antiparasitics, but there is a lack of studies involving the design and development of stable and safe natural products-based formulations. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish LC50 and LC90 of Ocimum gratissimum essential oil and eugenol on immature stages and adults of Ctenocephalides felis felis and Rhipicephalus sanguineus; and to design and to determine the in vitro efficacy and residual effect of a natural product-based spray formulation for flea and tick control in pets. Bioassays were carried out according to the filter paper impregnation technique for fleas and through the larval packet test for ticks. O. gratissimum essential oil and eugenol presented pulicidal and acaricidal activity in vitro against immature stages and adults of C. felis felis and immature stages of R. sanguineus. The greater potency of eugenol against fleas and ticks led to the choice of eugenol as the active ingredient in the pharmaceutical form developed. The developed eugenol-based sprays presented adequate physical and chemical characteristics and stability, had pulicidal and acaricidal efficacy after 24 h and residual effect against fleas for up to 48 days.

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Phyllodiaptomus tunguidus and Heliodiaptomus falxus are dominant copepods species in drinking water processing plants in southern China. With a potential penetration risk, the breeding and leakage of copepods are drawing more and more attention in recent years. The current study provided a thermal treatment method to control copepods and their eggs. Results showed that: (1) the immediate death rates of P. tunguidus and H. falxus after heated to 34-40 °C for 5 min are positively correlated to the treatment temperatures (P < 0.01), and all individuals of the both species were eliminated after heated at 40 °C for 5 min; (2) overall hatching rates of P. tunguidus eggs were negatively correlated with treatment temperatures (P < 0.01) between 39-45 °C, with zero percent hatched after treatment at 45 °C for 5 min; (3) hatching rates of H. falxus were negatively correlated with treatment temperatures (P < 0.01) between 37-41 °C, with no nauplii hatched when treated at 41 °C for 5 min; (4) paraffin section histological examination indicated that thermal treatment caused severe damage to internal organs and egg structure. Finally, based on the experimental data, the application of the thermal treatment method was discussed in ozonation combined with biological activated carbon (O3/BAC) processing of drink water treatment.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro activity of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil (SAEO) and its main constituent eugenol (EG) against adult fleas and their action in the maturation of eggs into adults of Ctenocephalides felis felis. In order to evaluate the pulicidal activity, 10 adult fleas were exposed to a filter paper impregnated with SAEO and EG at increasing concentrations of 0.047; 0.094; 0.188; 0.375; 0.750; 1.50; 3.00; 6.00; 12.00 and 24.00 µg cm-2. Flea mortality was evaluated 24 and 48 h after exposure. In order to evaluate the inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults, 10 eggs were exposed to filter paper impregnated with SAEO and EG at the same concentrations used in the pulicidal test, and the evaluation was performed 30 days after incubation. Untreated repetitions were maintained in both studies (control group). The lethal concentration 50 (LC50) of pulicidal activity to SAEO was 5.70 µg cm-2 in 24 h and 3.91 µg cm-2 in 48 h. The LC90 was 16.10 µg cm-2 and 15.80 µg cm-2 in 24 and 48 h, respectively. The LC50 of inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults was 0.30 µg cm-2 and the LC90 3.44 µg cm-2. The LC50 of pulicidal activity to EG was 2.40 µg cm-2 in 24 h and 1.40 µg cm-2 in 48 h; the LC90 was 8.10 µg cm-2 and 3.70 µg cm-2 in 24 h and 48 h, respectively. The LC50 of inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults was 0.10 µg cm-2 and the LC90 0.68 µg cm-2. Based on the results obtained, it is possible to conclude that the both SAEO and EG have in vitro pulicidal activity as well as acting as inhibitors of the maturation of eggs into adults of the flea C. felis felis.

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BACKGROUND: Dipylidium caninum is a common tapeworm of dogs contracted from ingestion of fleas containing the infective cysticercoid stage. Fluralaner is a systemically distributed isoxazoline class insecticide that delivers highly effective activity against fleas and ticks for up to 12 weeks after a single oral or topical treatment. This study evaluated the impact of this flea insecticidal efficacy on the transmission of D. caninum to dogs. METHODS: Dogs were weighed and treated with a cestocide and then randomly assigned to 3 groups of 8. Fluralaner was administered topically (at the commercial dose) to one group and orally to another group while the third received topically administered sterile water. All dogs were subsequently infested with about 100 D. caninum infected Ctenocephalides felis at 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, 77 and 83 days after treatment. Visual proglottid inspections and counts were conducted daily from 35 to 113 days post-treatment. Post-treatment D. caninum incidence was calculated for each group and compared between treated and untreated groups. RESULTS: All 8 dogs in the placebo-treated group became infected with D. caninum while no shed proglottids were observed at any point during the post-treatment period from any dog in either fluralaner treated group. CONCLUSIONS: The insecticidal efficacy of a single treatment of either orally or topically administered fluralaner prevented D. caninum transmission from infected fleas to susceptible dogs for up to 12 weeks following administration.

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BACKGROUND: An investigation was conducted in West Central Florida, USA to evaluate the efficacy of either topically applied fluralaner or topically applied selamectin to control flea infestations, minimize dermatologic lesions and reduce pruritus in naturally flea infested cats over a 12-week period. When dogs were present in the households, they were treated with either oral fluralaner (if household cats were treated with topical fluralaner) or oral sarolaner (if household cats were treated with topical selamectin). METHODS: Thirty-one cats in 20 homes were treated once with fluralaner topical solution on day 0 and 18 dogs in these homes were administered a single fluralaner chewable. Twenty-nine cats in 18 homes were treated once monthly with a selamectin topical solution for 3 treatments and 13 dogs in these same homes were treated once monthly for 3 treatments with a sarolaner chewable. Fleas on cats were counted by flea combing, fleas on dogs were estimated using visual area counts and fleas in the indoor premises were assessed using intermittent-light flea traps. Blinded-assessments of feline dermatologic lesions were conducted monthly and pruritus severity was evaluated by pet owners. RESULTS: A single topical application of fluralaner reduced flea populations on cats by 96.6% within 7 days and by 100% at 12 weeks post-treatment. This efficacy was significantly greater than selamectin treatment where single topical application reduced flea populations on cats by 79.4% within 7 days of initial treatment and 3 consecutive monthly treatments reduced flea populations by 91.3% at the end of 12 weeks. At the end of the 12-week study, all fluralaner-treated cats were flea-free and this was significantly greater than the 38.5% of selamectin treated cats that were flea-free. At the end of the study, fleas were completely eradicated (from cats, dogs and homes) in 95.0% of fluralaner treatment group homes, significantly greater than the 31.3% of selamectin/sarolaner treatment group homes with complete flea eradication. Owner reported cat pruritus was reduced similarly in both treatment groups. Significant improvements in dermatologic lesion scores were achieved by day 30 in fluralaner treated cats and by day 60 in selamectin treated cats. CONCLUSIONS: An in-home investigation in subtropical Florida found that 1 application of topical fluralaner eliminated flea infestations on cats and in homes significantly more effectively than 3 consecutive monthly doses of selamectin.

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BACKGROUND: An in-home investigation of naturally flea infested dogs was conducted in West Central Florida, USA to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of two different oral flea adulticides to control flea infestations, minimize dermatologic lesions and reduce pruritus over an 8-week period. METHODS: Twenty-nine dogs living in 19 homes and another 26 dogs residing in 16 different homes were orally administered either a sarolaner or spinosad chewable, respectively on day 0 and once between days 28-30. Products were administered by study personnel according to label directions. Flea populations on dogs were estimated using visual area counts and flea infestations in the indoor premises were assessed using intermittent-light flea traps on days 0, 7, 14, 21 and once between days 28-30, 40-45, and 56-60. Assessments of dermatologic lesions were conducted monthly during the study and severity of pruritus was evaluated throughout the study on the same schedule as flea counts were conducted. Concurrent treatments for existing skin disease were not allowed. RESULTS: The administration of sarolaner or spinosad reduced flea populations on dogs by 99.0% and 97.3%, respectively within 7 days. Flea infestations on the sarolaner- and spinosad-treated dogs were reduced by > 99% at every counting period from day 14 post-treatment through the end of the 8-week study. At the end of the study 96.4 and 92.0% of the dogs treated with sarolaner and spinosad, respectively were flea-free. Flea populations in the indoor premises were also markedly reduced the end of the study, with 100 and 99.8% reductions in flea trap counts in the sarolaner and spinosad treatment groups, respectively. FAD lesion scores, atopic dermatitis lesions scores (CADESI-4) and pruritus severity scores were also markedly improved with both formulations. CONCLUSIONS: An in-home clinical field study conducted during the summer of 2016 in subtropical Florida demonstrated that two-monthly administrations of either sarolaner or spinosad chewables almost completely eliminated flea infestations on dogs and in private residences, while markedly reducing dermatology lesions and pruritus.

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BACKGROUND: A study was conducted to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of two different oral flea and tick products to control flea infestations, reduce pruritus and minimize dermatologic lesions over a 12 week period on naturally infested dogs in west central FL USA. METHODS: Thirty-four dogs with natural flea infestations living in 17 homes were treated once with a fluralaner chew on study day 0. Another 27 dogs living in 17 different homes were treated orally with an afoxolaner chewable on day 0, once between days 28-30 and once again between days 54-60. All products were administered according to label directions by study investigators. Flea populations on pets were assessed using visual area counts and premise flea infestations were assessed using intermittent-light flea traps on days 0, 7, 14, 21, and once between days 28-30, 40-45, 54-60 and 82-86. Dermatologic assessments were conducted on day 0 and once monthly. Pruritus assessments were conducted by owners throughout the study. No concurrent treatments for existing skin disease (antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, anti-fungals) were allowed. RESULTS: Following the first administration of fluralaner or afoxolaner, flea populations on pets were reduced by 99.0 % and 99.3 %, respectively within 7 days. Flea populations on the fluralaner treated dogs were 0 (100 % efficacy) on days 54-60 and 82-86 after the administration of a single dose on day 0. Administration of 3 monthly doses of afoxolaner reduced flea populations by 100 % on days 82-86. Flea numbers in indoor-premises were markedly reduced in both treatment groups by days 82-86, with 100 % and 98.9 % reductions in flea trap counts in the fluralaner and afoxolaner treatment groups, respectively. Marked improvement was observed in FAD lesion scoring, Atopic Dermatitis lesions scoring (CADESI-4) and pruritus scores with both formulations. CONCLUSIONS: In a clinical field investigation conducted during the summer of 2015 in subtropical Florida, a single administration of an oral fluralaner chew completely eliminated dog and premises flea infestations and markedly reduced dermatology lesions and pruritus. Three monthly doses of the afoxolaner chewable also eliminated flea infestations in dogs, markedly reduced premises' flea populations and similarly improved dermatology lesions and pruritus.

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Why is it that, despite the proliferation of research on their biology and control, fleas remain such a burden for companion animals and their owners? This review highlights a range of reasons for persistence and apparent treatment failures. It argues that a sustainable approach will require integrated pest management based upon a detailed understanding of the flea life cycle, targeting not only adult fleas but also the immature stages in the environment, combining several modes of control and limiting the risk of chemoresistance. Individual characteristics of the pet and its environment need to be considered. Control of fleas can be achieved, over a timescale of several months, if basic rules are respected.

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Plague is a primarily flea-borne rodent-associated zoonosis that is often fatal in humans. Our study focused on the plague-endemic West Nile region of Uganda where affordable means for the prevention of human plague are currently lacking. Traditional hut construction and food storage practices hinder rodent exclusion efforts, and emphasize the need for an inexpensive but effective host-targeted approach for controlling fleas within the domestic environment. Here we demonstrate the ability of an insecticide delivery tube that is made from inexpensive locally available materials to reduce fleas on domestic rodents. Unbaited tubes were treated with either an insecticide alone (fipronil) or in conjunction with an insect growth regulator [(S)-methoprene], and placed along natural rodent runways within participant huts. Performance was similar for both treatments throughout the course of the study, and showed significant reductions in the proportion of infested rodents relative to controls for at least 100 d posttreatment.

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Abstract- Cat flea egg production usually peaks during the night, coinciding with normal sleep periods for indoor pet dogs and cats. Adult flea feeding activity and the production of dried-blood feces is not correlated with the sleep activity of the host. Eggs and dried-blood feces fall or are dislodged from the pelage of the host at sleep or resting sites. In a case study example, cat flea hatched eggs, and larval exuviae were found to have a clumped distribution within household carpet. The spatial distribution of the immature stages were influenced by the habits of the pet host indoors. First- and second-in star larvae do not move far from the location of egg deposition and hatch. The movement of the larval stage is influenced by several factors in the environment, including pedestrian and pet traffic. The distribution of larvae in household carpeting is correlated with the sleeping habits of the host and egg deposition habits of the cat flea. Résumé- La production d'oeufs des puces de chat est maximale habituellement durant la nuit, coïncidant ainsi avec les périodes de sommeil des chiens et des chat. L'activité alimentaire des puces adultes et la production de fèces n'est pas corrélé avec la période de sommeil de l'hôte. Les oeufs et les excréments tombent ou sont détachés du pelage de l'hôte pendant le sommeil ou dans les zones de repos. Dans une étude, les oeufs des puces de chat éclos et les exuvies larvaires, ont une distribution groupée dans les tapis de la maison. La distribution spatiale des stades immatures sont influencées par les habitudes des animaux à l'intérieur. Les larves (stade I et II) ne peuvent pas se mouvoir loin du lieu du dépôt et d'éclosion des oeufs. Le mouvement des larves est influencé par divers facteurs de l'environnement, notamment les déplacements des personnes et des animaux. La distribution des larves dans les tapis de la maison est corrélée aux habitudes de sommeil de l'hôte et au dépôt des oeufs des puces du chat. [Robinson, W. H. Distribution of cat flea larvae in the carpeted household environment (Distribution des larves des puces du chat dans les tapis de la maison). Resumen- La producción de huevos en la pulga del gato alcanza su máximo nivel durante la noche, coincidiendo con los periodos normales de sueño de los perros y gatos de compañia. Los periodos de alimentación y de producción de heces de sangre seca de las pulgas adultas no coincide con el sueño del huésped. Los huevos y la heces de sangre seca caen o son eliminados del pelaje del huésped durante el sueño o en los lugares de descanso. En un estudio con casos clinicos, se observó que los huevos eclosionados de la pulga del gato y los restos de las larvas se encontraban en forma de agregados en la alformbra de la casa. La distribución espacial de los estadios inmaduros se veia influido por las costumbres del animal huésped dentro de la casa. En el primer y segundo estadío larvario no se desplazan lejos de donde se deposita y eclosiona el huevo. El movimiento de la larva se ve influido por varios factores del entorno, como el tráfico de personas y de animates. La distribución de larvas en las alfombras de la casa se correlaciona con los hábitos de sueño del huésped y con la deposición de huevos por la pulga. [Robinson, W. H. Distribution of cat flea larvae in the carpeted household environment (Distribución de larvas de la pulga del gato en viviendas enmoquetadas).

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Abstract- Fipronil is a new insecticide and acaricide belonging to the phenylpyrazole family. Experimental studies have demonstrated the efficacy of a 0.25% fipronil mechanical pump spray formulation against fleas and ticks in both dogs and cats. Two multicentric clinical trials were set up to confirm the efficacy of this product under field conditions. The dog study was a positive control study. Flea infestation was qualitatively assessed at the initial visit (treatment date) and at the final visit (when reinfestation was observed or at the latest by 2 months after treatment). Sixty-one per cent and 21.5 per cent of dogs were free of fleas ("zero-flea stage") at the end of the second month post-treatment in the experimental and reference groups, respectively. The incidence of pruritus and dermatological lesions was reduced in the two groups but with significantly better results in the fipronil group. Sixty-one per cent of the cats treated with fipronil were also free of fleas at the end of the second month post-treatment. Pruritus was also significantly reduced. Résumé- Le fipronil est un nouvel insecticide appartenant à la famille des phénylpyrazolés. Des études expérimentales ont démontré l'efficacité d'une solution à 0,25% de fipronil en pulvérisation manuelle contre les puces et les tiques chez le chien et le chat. Deux études cliniques multicentriques ont été conduites pour confirmer l'efficacité de ce produit sur le terrain. L'étude chez le chien est une étude contrôlée positive. L'infestation par les puces a été déterminée qualitativement lors de la visite initiale (date du traitement), et lors de la visite finale (quand une réinfestation a été observée ou au moins 2 mois après le traitement). 61% et 21,5% des chiens étaient indemnes de puces (stade 0 puce) à la fin du second mois consécutif au traitement respectivement dans le groupe traité et dans le groupe de référence. Le prurit et les lésions dermatologiques étaient réduits dans les deux groupes, mais avec des résultats meilleurs dans le groupe fipronil. 61% des chats traités avec le fipronil étaient aussi indemnes de puces 2 mois après le traitement. Le prurit était également significativement réduit. [Postal, J.-M. R., Jeannin, P. C, Consalui, P.-J. Field efficiency of a mechanical pump spray formulation containing 0.25% fipronil in the treatment and control of flea infestation and associated dermatological signs in cats and dogs (Efficacité d'une solution à 0,25% de fipronil en pulvérisation manuelle dans le traitement et le contrôle d'une pullicose et des symptômes dermatologiques associés chez les chiens et les chats). Resumen- El fipronil es un nuevo insecticida y acaricida de la familia de los fenilpirazoles. Estudios expérimentales han demostrado la efectividad de une fórmula de fipronil al 0,25% en un pulverizador con sistema mecànico de bombeo contra pulgas y piojos en el perro y en el gato. Se diseñaron dos pruebas clinicas multicéntricas para confirmar la afectividad de este producto en condiciones de campo. El estudio en el perro fue la prueba control. Se realizó un examen cualtitativo sobre el grado de infestación por pulgas en la primera visita (fecha de tratamiento) y en la última visita (en caso de reinfestación o como máximo dos meses después del tratamiento). El sesenta y uno por ciento y el 21,5% de los perros estaba libre de pulgas ("estadio pulga-cero") al final del segundo mes después del tratamiento en los grupos experimental y de referencia, respectivamente. La incidencia de prurito y de lesiones dermatológicas se vieron reducidos en los dos grupos pero con resultados significativamente mejores en el grupo del fipronil. El sesenta y uno por ciento de los gatos tratados con fipronil estaban también fibres de pulgas al final del segundo mes después del tratamiento. El prurito se vió también significativamente disminuido. [Postal, J.-M. R., Jeannin, P. C, Consalui, P.-J. Field efficiency of a mechanical pump spray formulation containing 0.25% fipronil in the treatment and control of flea infestation and associated dermatological signs in cats and dogs (Efectividad en un estudio de campo de una fórmula para pulverizador con sistema mecànico de bombeo con un 0,25% de fipronil en el tratamiento y control de infestaciones por pulgas y problemas dermatológicos asociados en el perro y el gato).