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Wild food plants (WFPs) are crucial for the subsistence of many human populations. While there are at least 7000 edible plant species in the world, only approximately 420 are considered food crops. WFPs are often studied from the phytochemical and pharmacological point of view, because they include available food components with nutraceutical value. The present study aims to highlight the nutritional value of WFPs traditionally used in the Catalan linguistic area, providing detailed insights and discussing the significance of these properties. Information about the nutritional properties of 93 taxa, coming from ethnobotanical prospection, has been collected through an extensive bibliographic research. The results reveal that WFPs are rich in nutrients, especially micronutrients. Furthermore, in selected species, those for which nutritional information and a cultivated homologue are available, the nutrient content in wild taxa exceeds than of phylogenetically related crop plants with similar use. Traditional wild plant preparation forms for food and the nutritional value of a menu constituted by wild food plants are presented. This research represents a preliminary step toward selecting certain taxa that could be developed into new small- or large-scale crops or sustainably harvested in the wild, contributing to food security.

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In many parts of the world, wild edible plants (WEPs) constitute an essential component of the global food basket, providing an alternative source of wholesome and nourishing food. Ethiopia is one of countries of the world having largest concentrations of WEPs. In the country, various parts of WEPs, such as fruits, stems, leaves, tubers, roots, or entire plant sections, are frequently consumed and used as food sources for famine relief during seasonal food shortages, as well as for commercial purposes. WEPs have been also used in the country as sources of phytochemicals, traditional medicine, and pharmaceutical applications. Approximately 30%-40% of WEPs and over 413 different kinds of WEPs are commonly consumed by Ethiopians regularly. Most plant families utilized as WEPs are Moraceae, Fabaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Myrtaceae, Rosaceae, and Tiliaceae. The most widely used plant parts of WEPs were fruits. WEPs can be used as substitutes for traditional plant-based human diets because of their high nutritional value, which includes proteins, vitamins B2 and C, and low moisture content. This review focuses on using edible wild plants for pharmacological purposes, dietary supplements, and alternative medicine. Many obstacles prevent people from consuming WEPs, even when they are easily accessible and available. The use of WEPs must be encouraged by nutrition policies as one of the pillars of food and nutrition security. To increase yield, diversify the revenue streams of small-scale farmers, and protect the diminishing wild edible fruit resources, it is imperative to domesticate and enhance WEPs.

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Wild edible plants (WEPs) are important food sources globally due to their accessibility and affordability. In Ethiopia, where diverse cultural groups consume WEPs, this systematic review explores their diversity, edible parts, and role in supporting food security. The review examined 38 original studies on the ethnobotany of WEPs in Ethiopia from 2000 to 2022. It identified a total of 651 WEP species from 343 genera and 94 families, with the Fabaceae family having the most species (51). Herbs and shrubs were the predominant growth habits, and fruits were the most consumed plant parts. The review prioritized nine WEP species for cultivation and promotion. However, threats such as overgrazing, agricultural expansion, and the use of woody species for construction, firewood, and charcoal have depleted WEP resources and eroded traditional knowledge about their use. The review suggests that WEPs have the potential to contribute to food and nutritional security in Ethiopia if these threats are effectively managed. However, the limited coverage of ethnobotanical studies on WEPs requires further investigation. The study recommends integrating the prioritized WEPs into the national food system for promotion, cultivation, and nutrient analysis to evaluate their nutritional bioavailability.

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Slavonia is the most developed agricultural region in Croatia. With rich and fertile soils that have enabled the cultivation of a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and cereals, Slavonia has always met the food needs of its population. Today, the biocultural diversity of local varieties and semi-natural vegetation has irretrievably disappeared. Our aim was to document the remaining local knowledge of plant use in this area through in-depth semi-structured interviews, which were conducted in 2022-2023. All possible aspects of the use of plants and fungi were recorded as food, animal feed, medicine, construction, jewelry, rituals and ceremonies, dyes, etc. The names and uses of local plant varieties were also recorded. The results show 1702 entries-a total of 296 plant taxa from 76 families and 28 fungi from 16 families. The most frequently named plants were: Urtica dioica, Robinia pseudoacacia, Rosa canina, and Sambucus nigra. The plants with the greatest variety of uses were Morus alba, Rosmarinus officinalis, Triticum aestivum, and Zea mays. Interesting uses were identified. The leaves of the ornamental plant Hosta sieboldiana are still used today as food for wrapping meat with rice, the aquatic plant Trapa natans is eaten like chestnuts, and Pteridium aquilinum was once consumed as a vegetable. In addition, Ambrosia artemisiifolia and Sambucus ebulus were given to horses to prevent and avoid blood poisoning. Some forest species had a special significance and were revered or favored. The most frequently mentioned edible fungi were Boletus sp., Cantharellus cibarius, and Lactarius piperatus. Auricularia auricula-judae is the only species stated to have been used exclusively as a raw snack. Evidence of edible use of Sarccoscypha coccinea, which was reported as traditionally consumed in the past, was of particular interest. Despite the modernization and agricultural nature of the region, many interesting uses of plants and fungi were identified. Further efforts should be directed towards documenting this knowledge to facilitate its dissemination in the communities that possess it, or at least to preserve it for future generations.

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BACKGROUND: The interplay between different uses of woody plants remains underexplored, obscuring our understanding of how a plant's value for one purpose might shield it from other, more harmful uses. This study examines the protection hypothesis by determining if food uses can protect woody plants (trees and shrubs) from wood uses. We approached the hypothesis from two distinct possibilities: (1) the protective effect is proportional to the intensity of a species' use for food purposes, and (2) the protective effect only targets key species for food purposes. METHODS: The research was conducted in a rural community within "Restinga" vegetation in Northeast Brazil. To identify important food species for both consumption and income (key species) and the collection areas where they naturally occur, we conducted participatory workshops. We then carried out a floristic survey in these areas to identify woody species that coexist with the key species. Voucher specimens were used to create a field herbarium, which, along with photographs served as visual stimuli during the checklist interviews. The interviewees used a five-point Likert scale to evaluate the species in terms of perceived wood quality, perceived availability, and use for food and wood purposes. To test our hypothesis, we used Cumulative Link Mixed Models (CLMMs), with the wood use as the response variable, food use, perceived availability and perceived quality as the explanatory variables and the interviewee as a random effect. We performed the same model replacing food use for key species food use (a binary variable that had value 1 when the information concerned a key species with actual food use, and value 0 when the information did not concern a key species or concerned a key species that was not used for food purposes). RESULTS: Consistent with our hypothesis, we identified a protective effect of food use on wood use. However, this effect is not directly proportional to the species' food use, but is confined to plants with considerable domestic food importance. Perceived availability and quality emerged as notable predictors for wood uses. CONCLUSION: We advocate for biocultural conservation strategies that enhance the food value of plants for their safeguarding, coupled with measures for non-edible woody species under higher use-pressure.

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BACKGROUND: Wild edible plants (WEPs) are usually considered to constitute all plant resources that are neither cultivated nor domesticated but are used as nutritional supplements by local people. WEPs play a vital role in ensuring food and livelihood security for countless families and communities around the world. The objective of the study was to assess and document wild edible plants used by communities in the Arsi Robe district as food. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews, market surveys, and guided field walks were employed as data collection tools. The data were analyzed using preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, and Jaccard's similarity index. RESULTS: The present study revealed various types of wild edible plants consumed by local communities in the Arsi Robe district of the East Arsi Zone. This could be justified by the documentation of 36 different wild edible plants in the study area. These WEPs belong to 31 genera and 25 families. Most of the growth forms of the edible wild plants in the district were shrubs (16, 44.44%) and trees (14, 38.88%). Amaranthus caudatus and Bridelia micrantha are the most preferred WEPs in the study area. The finding of the study also revealed that Lepidotrichilia volkensii and Premna schimperi are among the novel WEPs that had not before been documented as food items in other areas. Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Ficus sycomorus, Cordia africana, and Ficus sur are species with multiple uses. Agricultural expansion, charcoal production, the construction of different materials, making agricultural tools, deforestation, and other factors were the top prioritized threats affecting the abundance and diversity of wild edible plants. CONCLUSION: Along with the sustainable utilization and conservation of the existing WEPs of the study district, priority should be given to the urgent collection, domestication, and cultivation of multiuse wild edible plant species such as Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Ficus sycomorus, Cordia africana, and Ficus sur in the study area.

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ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Angola has an extraordinary plant diversity and a great ethnobotanical potential. However, there is a general lack of information about the first botanical explorations in the country and their contribution to the knowledge of the medicinal flora. AIM OF THE STUDY: The main aim of this study was to unveil the ethnobotanical legacy of José Maria Antunes and Eugène Dekindt, priests of the first Catholic mission in Huíla (Angola) and shed light on their contribution to the knowledge of medicinal wild plants of the country, including information on the uses, plant parts used, and preparation methods documented in the late 19th century. The findings are discussed considering recent ethnobotanical studies to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the historical and traditional uses of plants in Angola over the last two centuries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Based on the information available in manuscripts and on the study of botanical collections preserved in herbaria of Portugal and Angola, we extracted relevant information about the species used in traditional medicine by the rural population of Huíla, the health conditions treated, and the mode of preparation and application. RESULTS: Our results revealed that Antunes and Dekindt conducted the first ethnobotanical study in Huíla, and documented a large number of medicinal wild plants. From these, we report 191 medicinal species, including 25 endemic and four introduced species, belonging to 56 plant families and 146 genera. Fabaceae family presents the highest richness of medicinal plants (39 taxa), followed by Rubiaceae (13), Asteraceae (10), and Apocynaceae (9). The illnesses reported were classified into 15 different categories, with the highest number of species (49) corresponding to unspecific conditions, such as general pains, chills, and fever. Thirty-seven species were reported for respiratory diseases, 31 for musculoskeletal problems, and 30 for digestive issues. Leaves were the most used plant part for medicinal purposes (84 species). Infusion was the most frequently described preparation method (40 species), followed by maceration (24 species), and powdering (36 species). CONCLUSIONS: The legacy of Antunes and Dekindt's work improves our understanding of Angola's botanical richness and traditional uses of plant resources. Our findings highlight the presence of unique medicinal resources in Angola, especially among endemic species, which hold the potential to improve the quality of life of rural communities. Moreover, our research underscores the lack of knowledge of medicinal species, emphasizing the risk of losing valuable historical information.

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BACKGROUND: Historically, the Andean people have experienced uncertainty in terms of the availability of food resources because of climatic and ecological variations that are typical of mountainous environments. Risk management strategies, including the diversified and complementary use and management of species and ecosystems at different elevations, have faced such uncertainty. The current effects of climate change on food security motivate studies on subsistence adaptative strategies. TEK offers extraordinary experience and local biocultural memory to meet present and future needs. From an ethnoecological perspective, we aim to identify the variety of local foods in Andean communities, their cultural and nutritional value for local people, their use frequencies, and their forms to obtain them from different environments, productive systems, and interchanges. We expected to identify traditional Andean diversified subsistence patterns despite the pressure of modern food and interchange systems. METHODS: This study was conducted in two communities in the highlands of the Department of Huánuco, Peru. We conducted 24 semistructured interviews with households sampled through the snowball method. We asked about their daily life food, plant and animal components of diet, frequencies and seasons in which they are consumed, and ways to obtain them. We complemented the information through ethnobotanical collection of wild, weedy, and ruderal edible plants and records on domestic and wild animals included in the diet. RESULTS: We recorded 37 crop species, 13 domestic animals, 151 wild, weedy, and ruderal food plant species, the 3 most commonly consumed wild animals, and 52 processed products obtained from local stores and markets. The main crops are potato and maize, while the main domestic animals included in the diet are cattle, pigs, and sheep. Rice, pasta, and bread are the main raw and processed foods included in the diet. Crops represent nearly half of the food consumed and purchased (in kg/year), and tubers and cereals provide most of the kilocalories, carbohydrates and proteins. Wild, weedy, and ruderal plants are consumed in relatively low amounts and at relatively low frequencies per species, but overall, they constitute a significant proportion of the kg of annually consumed food (14.4% in Cani and 9.6% in Monte Azul). Knowledge and use of these resources play a key role in local cuisine and nutrition. CONCLUSION: The current food patterns studied are based on diverse diets, including multiple feedstuffs, sources, and practices to obtain them, which reflects the traditional Andean subsistence pattern. The increasing adoption of processed food has influenced the declining consumption of local food, mainly among young people. Communication and policies to promote local food, emphasizing the role of wild plants and their adequate consumption, and provide information on their nutritional value are recommended to support efforts toward food sovereignty and conservation of Andean biocultural diversity.

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BACKGROUND: Feeding the world's future population while still facing a variety of socioeconomic and climate change scenarios with uncertain outcomes is a key global societal concern that should be addressed in a science-based manner. Ethiopia boasts a great diversity of wild edible plant species (WEPS), but millions of its citizens still suffer from chronic hunger every year. In this context, we here document the use and conservation of WEPS in the Awi Agäw community, Northwestern Ethiopia. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study from October 2021 to June 2022. Ethnobotanical and conservation status data were collected via semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, field walks and market surveys. A total of 374 respondents from three districts (Guangua, Jawi and Ankasha) were purposely selected for the study. Descriptive statistics, including preference rankings, frequencies and direct matrix rankings, were employed for the data analysis. RESULTS: We identified a total of 39 WEPS plant taxa distributed among 26 families and 32 genera. The Moraceae and Rosaceae had the greatest numbers of plants, with five and three species, respectively. The WEPS are regularly consumed in the study area to alleviate hunger. However, threats such as habitat loss, agricultural expansion, deforestation for firewood and other reasons, and pesticide use threaten WEPS availability. CONCLUSION: Therefore, community-based conservation interventions need to be encouraged to safeguard WEPS and associated traditional knowledge. Furthermore, nutritional quality analysis is recommended for the selection of promising WEPS candidates.

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Introduction: School feeding programs are important for ensuring food security and promoting child health and development, particularly in low-income countries. In view of this importance, it is possible to increase the quality of these meals by diversifying the vegetables offered and incorporating underutilized plants to improve dietary diversity and nutritional quality into school meals. Methods: This study was carried out using the action research methodology following the implementation and development of the "Inova na Horta" project in the city of Jundiaí, São Paulo, Brazil. The project was based on the existing and functioning physical and organizational structure of a municipal organic farm. Vegetables were selected from among 210 non-conventional species and varieties, which were further selected for continuous production based on 8 nutritional, culinary and cultivation criteria. Results: Thirty-four vegetables were selected for continuous cultivation and provisions to the school kitchens. Nine tons of vegetables were produced and provided to 90 municipal schools from 2020-2023. Leafy vegetables accounted for most the production, with a total weight of 6441 kg corresponding to 71.6% of the total harvest. Kitchen teams were trained throughout the project duration. Discussion: The feasibility of the production and culinary use of 34 biodiverse, nutrient-rich and underutilized food vegetables for school meals was demonstrated. The selected vegetables are nutrient-rich and contain higher amounts of minerals and proteins than the control vegetables (conventional vegetables), thus complementing several nutrients in school meals. This methodology can be replicated by municipalities of various sizes as a public policy of food and nutritional security associated with the valorization of local biodiversity.

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BACKGROUND: Understanding how pharmaceutical formulas target specific illnesses is crucial for developing effective treatments. Enriching ion channel data is a critical first step in comprehending a formula's mechanism of action. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to explore the effective disease spectrum of the Qi Yu granule formula through network pharmacology analysis and backtracking, and analyze its potential curative effects on liver and spleen system diseases, particularly depression and breast cancer. METHODS: Using pharmacological tools and database analysis, the ion channel data of the formula's components were investigated. The effective disease spectrum was determined, and diseases related to liver and gallbladder, liver depression, and spleen deficiency were identified. Network pharmacology analysis was conducted to backtrack diseases, target gene proteins, and drug compositions. The extraction technology of volatile oil from medicinal herbs was experimentally studied to optimize the preparation process. RESULTS: The effective disease spectrum analysis identified potential curative effects of the Qi Yu granule formula on various diseases, including breast cancer. Backtracking revealed relationships between diseases, target gene proteins, and drug compositions. Experimental studies on volatile oil extraction provided insights into optimizing the preparation process. CONCLUSION: The study underscores the potential therapeutic benefits of the Qi Yu granule formula for liver and spleen system diseases. By integrating network pharmacology analysis and experimental research, this study offers valuable insights into the formulation and efficacy of the Qi Yu granules, paving the way for further exploration and optimization of TCM formulations.

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BACKGROUND: The Baiku Yao, primarily residing in Guangxi and Guizhou provinces of China, is a distinctive branch of the Yao ethnic group, known for their profound cultural preservation and unique ethnobotanical knowledge. This study investigates the Baiku Yao community's utilization of traditional food plants, focusing on the relationship between their dietary practices and the local biodiversity within their mountainous living environment. It aims to illuminate the cultural significance and survival strategies embedded in their ethnobotanical knowledge, highlighting the potential for sustainable living and biodiversity conservation. METHODS: Through ethnobotanical surveys, key informant interviews, and quantitative analysis techniques such as the cultural food significance index (CFSI) and relative frequency of citations (RFC), this research systematically documents the diversity and cultural importance of edible plants in the Baiku Yao community. The study assesses how these plants contribute to the community's diet, traditional medicine, and overall cultural practices. RESULTS: A total of 195 traditional edible plants were documented, belonging to 142 genera and 68 families, with a significant concentration in certain families such as Asteraceae, Rosaceae, and Fabaceae. The Baiku Yao diet prominently features herbaceous plants, with wild (103 species) and cultivated (89 species) varieties as diverse food sources. They utilize various plant parts, particularly fruits and leaves, for multiple purposes, including nutrition, medicine, and fodder. Their processing techniques, from raw to fermented, showcase a rich culinary tradition and emphasize a holistic use of plants for enhancing diet and health in a concise overview. The RFC and CFSI analyses reveal a deep cultural reliance on a variety of plant species, with a notable emphasis on vegetables, fruits, spices, and medicinal herbs. Specific plants like Zingiber officinale, Zea mays, and Oryza sativa were highlighted for their high cultural significance. The study also uncovers the multifunctional use of these plants, not only as food but also for medicinal purposes, fodder, and other cultural applications, reflecting the Baiku Yao's profound ecological wisdom and their harmonious coexistence with nature. CONCLUSION: The findings emphasize the rich ethnobotanical knowledge possessed by the Baiku Yao, underscoring the importance of documenting, safeguarding, and transmitting this invaluable traditional knowledge. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of cultural heritage and biodiversity conservation, advocating for concerted efforts to protect such traditional practices against the threats of modernization and cultural erosion.

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A perennial challenge in harnessing the rich biological activity of medicinal and edible plants is the accurate identification and sensitive detection of their active compounds. In this study, an innovative, ultra-sensitive detection platform for plant chemical profiling is created using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) technology. The platform uses silver nanoparticles as the enhancing substrate, excess sodium borohydride prevents substrate oxidation, and methanol enables the tested molecules to be better adsorbed onto the silver nanoparticles. Subsequently, nanoparticle aggregation to form stable "hot spots" is induced by Ca2+, and the Raman signal of the target molecule is strongly enhanced. At the same time, deuterated methanol was used as the internal standard for quantitative determination. The method has excellent reproducibility, RSD ≤ 1.79%, and the enhancement factor of this method for the detection of active ingredients in the medicinal plant Coptis chinensis was 1.24 × 109, with detection limits as low as 3 fM. The platform successfully compared the alkaloid distribution in different parts of Coptis chinensis: root > leaf > stem, and the difference in content between different batches of Coptis chinensis decoction was successfully evaluated. The analytical technology adopted by the platform can speed up the determination of Coptis chinensis and reduce the cost of analysis, not only making better use of these valuable resources but also promoting development and innovation in the food and pharmaceutical industries. This study provides a new method for the development, evaluation, and comprehensive utilization of both medicinal and edible plants. It is expected that this method will be extended to the modern rapid detection of other medicinal and edible plants and will provide technical support for the vigorous development of the medicinal and edible plants industry.

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The present study demonstrates the presence of the neurotoxin ß-N-methylamino-L-alanine and its cyanobacterial producers in irrigation water and grains of some cereal plants from farmlands irrigated with Nile River water in Egypt. BMAA detected by LC-MS/MS in phytoplankton samples was found at higher concentrations of free form (0.84-11.4 µg L-1) than of protein-bound form (0.16-1.6 µg L-1), in association with the dominance of cyanobacteria in irrigation water canals. Dominant cyanobacterial species isolated from these irrigation waters including Aphanocapsa planctonica, Chroococcus minutus, Dolichospermum lemmermanni, Nostoc commune, and Oscillatoria tenuis were found to produce different concentrations of free (4.8-71.1 µg g-1 dry weight) and protein-bound (0.1-11.4 µg g-1 dry weight) BMAA. In the meantime, BMAA was also detected in a protein-bound form only in grains of corn (3.87-4.51 µg g-1 fresh weight) and sorghum (5.1-7.1 µg g-1 fresh weight) plants, but not in wheat grains. The amounts of BMAA accumulated in these grains correlated with BMAA concentrations detected in relevant irrigation water canals. The presence of BMAA in cereal grains would constitute a risk to human and animal health upon consumption of contaminated grains. The study, therefore, suggests continuous monitoring of BMAA and other cyanotoxins in irrigation waters and edible plants to protect the public against exposure to such potent toxins.

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Phytotherapy is a cost-effective alternative that continues to evolve. This has sparked significant research interest in naturally occurring compounds found in edible plants that possess antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. Corchorus tridens L. is a wild edible plant widely recognised for its edible leaves, which are used for vegetable and animal feed. The plant is widely distributed across the African continent and is utilised in numerous countries for treating fever, pain, inflammation, and sexually transmitted diseases. Extracts from various parts of this plant exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, and pesticidal properties. This plant is a rich source of amino acids, vitamins, essential fatty acids, proteins, and minerals, as well as secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, quinines, steroids, terpenoids, phenols, and tannins. Additional studies are still needed to determine other biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory activity, involvement in the treatment of measles, prevention of anaemia, and pain-relieving properties. The current review aims to provide information on the characteristics, distribution, nutritional content, bioactive compounds, traditional uses, and biological activities of the edible plant species C. tridens L. to stimulate further research interest to address the existing literature gaps concerning this plant.

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The aim of this study is to inventory and study ethnobotanical knowledge of edible plants in the Valencian Community (Spain). In respect to culinary uses, 92 species of plant were reported to be edible, finding the following uses: 58 raw, 52 cooked, 16 fried, 7 dried, 21 in liquors and beverages, 25 in dessert and sweets, 11 as seasoning, 17 in pickles, and 10 to curdle milk. We prepared a database that includes genus, family, scientific, and vernacular names in Spanish and Catalan for each plant. We also created a classification of nine edible uses and plant parts used, being Asteraceae (n = 18), Brassicaceae (n = 7), Chenopodiaceae (n = 6), and Rosaceae (n = 6) the families most characterized for gastronomic purposes. The species with the most elevated cultural importance (CI) values were Foeniculum vulgare (CI = 1.389), Cynara scolymus (CI = 1.374), Papaver rhoeas (CI = 1.211), Beta vulgaris (CI = 1.167), and Juglans regia (CI = 1.155). The most used parts were the leaves (71), flowers (25), and branches (19), while the least used were roots (9) and seeds (8). Traditional knowledge of these plants helps to preserve traditional cuisine, promote the local economy and, in several species, encourage their cultivation.

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No comprehensive research has been conducted on the traditional use of wild-grown edible plants in human nutrition for the Slovene ethnic area so far. In the literature on edible wild plants, authors often draw information about their use from foreign or international sources, such as books and databases, from which it is often unclear what people in different countries really include into their diet. Therefore, our purpose was to determine which edible wild-growing plant species have been used in Slovenia on a traditional basis. In our research, we gathered data using different methods. The data obtained from the literature review, i.e., the ethnobotanical literature and traditional cookbooks, were combined with those derived from the online sources and a field survey. This enabled us to create a database of 219 plant taxa encompassing more than 500 species from 62 families that are traditionally used in Slovenia. The most frequently represented families were Asteraceae, with 28 taxa, Rosaceae, with 22 taxa, Lamiaceae, with 18 taxa, Brassicaceae, with 17 taxa, Apiaceae, with 16 taxa, and Amaranthaceae, with 10 taxa. Plants are most often boiled, blanched, stewed or roasted, sometimes also baked in an oven or raw with additives, such as sour cream, sugar, salt or vinegar, but seldom fried. Selected traditional cookbooks and ethnological books provided good insight into the past use of wild plants, while an online and field survey enabled a comparison of their past and current state of use. The survey has shown that some very old wild plant recipes are still used within certain local communities, while younger people, influenced by new books about wild cuisine, are constantly introducing new plant species and recipes into their diet thereby establishing new traditions.

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Azolla caroliniana Willd. is an understudied wild edible plant native to the Eastern United States. Other species of Azolla have been used across the world for several thousand years as a livestock feed and as "green manure." The use of Azolla for human consumption is thought to be limited by its high total polyphenolic content (TPC). However, the TPC and nutritional content of A. caroliniana has not been thoroughly studied. We measured TPC and other nutrients before and after cooking methods designed to lower TPC. We found that TPC was 4.26 g gallic acid equivalent (GAE) kg-1 DW in raw A. caroliniana. All cooking methods significantly lowered TPC. Protein content was 19% DW, and the apparent protein digestibility was 78.45%. Our yield was 173 g FW m-2 day-1 and 5.53 g DW m-2 day-1. Azolla caroliniana is a high-yielding plant with great potential for cultivation and domestication.