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Background and Aim: Sheep scab is one of the most contagious diseases of sheep found in rural communities worldwide and is a major health and welfare concern for sheep farming. Information on the attitudes of communal farmers to sheep scab remains speculative in the Eastern Cape Province. This study aimed to investigate knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to the prevalence of sheep scab among communal sheep farmers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Materials and Methods: From June to August 2022, a cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire (n = 160) was conducted in two rural communities of the Enoch Mgijima Local Municipality in Eastern Cape Province. Purpose sampling was used to obtain respondents' knowledge, attitudes, and management practices regarding sheep scabs. Results: Among respondents, 81% were males and 19% were females. The majority of sheep farmers (59%) in both communities were aware of sheep scabs, but the majority (64%) did not receive any farming training. The majority of sheep farmers (65%) believed that sheep scab was the most serious threat to their sheep production since it increased mortality. In the past 3 years, approximately 57% of respondents reported an increase in the prevalence of sheep scab. The majority of farmers reported wool loss as the most noticeable clinical symptom (73%). More than 80% of sheep farmers do not use acaricide on a regular basis. Sixty-one percent of farmers prefer a pour-on topical application method. The frequency of annual dipping was every fortnight (40%), during summer and winter (24%). Most farmers (66%) regularly vaccinate their sheep. Conclusion: The prevalence of sheep scab is increasing in these communities; however, a better understanding of the factors that facilitate its transmission is required to allow improved management and control of this disease. The government must involve extension officers and distribute them to disseminate information to farmers. Thus, it will be easy to translate the literature into action.

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Maize plays a significant role among rural farming households in South Africa. The study therefore estimated the drivers of maize cultivars' selection choices among rural farming households focusing on the commonly grown cultivars from the study area (Landrace and genetically modifies [GM] maize). A cross-sectional survey of 650 respondents randomly selected from Port St Johns and King Sabata Dalindyebo Local Municipalities of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa were used. Descriptive results revealed that a significant number of the respondents from the study area (65%) were growing Landrace maize cultivars, followed by GM maize (31%), improved OPVs (3%) and conventional hybrids (1%). Multivariate Probit regression estimates show that GM maize cultivars' selection is positively influenced by the amount of rainfall (1% level), household size (5% level), education (1% level), size of arable land (10% level) and access to cell phones (5% level), whilst negatively influenced by the employment status (5%). Conversely, the selection of Landrace maize cultivars is negatively influenced by the of amount rainfall (1% level), education (1% level), income (10% level), access to cell phone (10% level) and radio (10% level) whilst positively influenced by the number of livestock (5% level). The study therefore argues that GM maize cultivars may be meaningfully promoted in high rainfall areas, focusing on arable land sizes and targeted awareness campaigns. The promotion of Landrace maize cultivars may be targeted in low rainfall areas in a mixed farming setting to enhance the complementarity of maize and livestock.

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We aimed to explore the behavioural protective mechanisms against cannabis use among adolescents living in South African illicit cannabis-growing communities, based on the Self Determination Theory (SDT). Exploratory qualitative design techniques were followed in conducting the study. The snowball sampling technique was used to recruit thirty (30) non-cannabis smoking adolescents from 2 purposively selected communities and grouped into 4 focus groups and interviewed. A semi-structured focus group interview guide was used to moderate the discussions. Data were analysed inductively, using the ATLAS. ti software. Nine behavioural coping mechanisms, grouped under intrinsic and extrinsic protective behavioural mechanisms, protected participants from using cannabis. Intrinsically, participants' determination not to engage in bad behaviours, focus on their academic work during their free periods, their non-financial dependence on cannabis-using peers, self-preservation to ensure good marriages, and religious beliefs on substance abuse motivated them to not use cannabis. On the other hand, the concept of Ukuphoxa (preservation of family dignity), fear of arrest, fear of being tagged a social deviant, and the fear of contracting illnesses such as lung cancer served as protective behavioural mechanisms against cannabis use. Health promotion and education programmes for adolescents on non-cannabis use in communities where illicit cannabis abounds must identify and draw on contextual intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that ensure non-cannabis use.

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Despite interventions, cancer remains a global public health concern. Cancer burden continues to grow globally, demanding the implementation of important preventative and control initiatives. Informative reports on existing routine cancer data are therefore required. This study describes the distribution and trends of cancer in Buffalo City (BFC) population, Eastern Cape (EC) Province for the period 1991-2009. Cancer patients were retrospectively surveyed in the database of Frere Hospital Oncology-Radiation Unit. Proportion by sex, race, geographical distribution in the province and top cancer sites were calculated. Direct method of standardisation was used to calculate Age Standardised Rates (ASR) for a subpopulation of patients residing at BFC; age-specific rates were applied to the reference population (World Standard Population). Trends in rates with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) for two most common cancers in males and females over time adjusted for age and sex and interactions between time and race were assessed using Poisson Regression. A total of 19 737 patients´ records were analysed; 38.8% (7 656) males and 61.2% (12 081) females. Most patients were Black Africans (81.5%), followed by Whites (13.5%), Mixed Race (4.5%) and Asians (0.5%). A larger proportion (46.0%) of the patients were from Buffalo City, while the rest were distributed in other municipalities served by Frere Hospital. Top five cancers in males were lung [22.5%, ASR 21.0], prostate [14.7%, ASR 9.2], larynx [5.8%, ASR 5.0], mouth [4.4%, ASR 3.7] and tongue [3.8%, ASR 2.9 per 100 000] in females; cervix [20.9%, ASR 23.0], breast [23.6%, ASR 20.2], lung [3.4%, ASR 4.7], ovary [2.1%, ASR 3.0] and corpus uteri [3.4%, ASR 2.8]. Trends showed a decrease in lung and prostate cancers in males, while cervix and breast remained stable in females. White males were two times (95% CI: 1.87-2.49) more likely to have lung cancer and five times (95% CI: 3.90-6.21) more likely to have prostate cancer than Black Africans. White females were 0.43 (95% CI: 0.44-0.73) less likely to have cervical cancer and three times (95% CI: 2.45-3.14) more likely to have breast compared to Black Africans. In conclusion, the availability of routine cancer data at Frere Hospital contributes to strengthening of the national cancer notification regulation, as the results of this study suggest that the burden of cancer in the EC Province remains high.

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INTRODUCTION: Mental distress is a global health concern. Studies show that the prevalence of mental distress is higher in students' population than in the general population. Therefore, there is need to understand the extent and factors associated with mental distress among students to help policymakers and practitioners in South Africa. AIM OF THE STUDY: The study was designed to investigate into the prevalence and factors associated with mental distress among students at universities in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among students from four universities in the Eastern Cape Province. The data were collected from 844 students using an online self-reporting questionnaire-20 to assess mental distress of students. Multivariable logistic regression modelling determined the association between socio-demographic and psychosocial factors with students' mental distress. FINDINGS: The prevalence of mental distress among students was 53.3% (95% CI 47.0%, 58.1%). Female students were more prone to mental distress than male students ([AOR]: 4.67; 95% CI 2.82, 7.72, P = 0.001). Field of study ([AOR]: 3.9; 95% CI 1.74, 5.50, P = 0.010), year of study ([AOR]: 4.29; 95% CI 0.86, 21.46, P = 0.002), academic workload ([AOR]: 4.66; 95% CI 2.81, 7.71, P = 0.003), poor sleep quality ([AOR]: 2.24; 95% CI 1.13, 3.67, P = 0.010) and using cannabis ([AOR]: 3.10; 95% CI 1.755, 5.51, P = 0.020) were other factors significantly correlated with students' mental distress. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The study found the level of mental distress to be higher among students than what is reported in most of the previous studies on the student population in South Africa. Being a female student, a user of cannabis, and field of study, academic workload and having poor sleep quality were predictors of mental distress. Findings point to the need to devise evidence-driven interventions and strategies to prevent and reduce the problem of mental distress among students.

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Assessing underlying illnesses can inform health stakeholders about chronic conditions for targeted enhanced prevention and treatment strategies. Since the Eastern Cape Province has a high disease burden, this study aimed to assess the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and selected disease burden of outpatients from primary health care (PHC) facilities in the districts. From February 2019 to February 2021, a cross-sectional study was conducted. Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap)-enabled tablets were used to collect data from consenting outpatients over the age of 18 years using an interviewer-administered WHO core and expanded stepwise questionnaire. The statistical analysis was mainly descriptive with the use of counts, frequencies, and summary measures. The study population was predominantly female (86.5%). Prevalent diseases included HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, and cardiometabolic diseases. HIV prevalence was 52% and highest in the age group of 30-59 years. In people living with HIV, the nonsuppressed viral load (VL 1000 copies/mL) was highest in the age group of 40-49 years (34.6%). Prevalence of diabetes was highest at the Mhlontlo subdistrict (42.3%), while the King Sabata Dalindyebo (KSD) subdistrict had the highest prevalence of HBV infections (39.1%). Based on the findings, we advocate for intermittent assessments of disease burden in certain settings, such as rural areas, to improve PHC practice and outcomes, especially in the wake of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic.

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Background: Parasites contribute significantly to the decline of livestock production and productivity and consequently hamper the availability of protein food resources. Aim: This study aims to report the prevalence of parasitic diseases in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP), South Africa. Method: Retrospective data of animal diseases in the ECP from 2013 to 2018 was obtained from the veterinary unit of the Department of Rural and Agrarian Reform database, decoded analyzed, and interpreted. Results: The results reveal a significant association (p < 0.05) between local municipality, seasons, year, and livestock species. Endoparasites (75%) were the highest reported in the year 2015, whereas ectoparasites (38.1%) and fly parasites (30.4%) were mostly reported in the year 2016. The highest prevalence of fly parasites and endoparasites was found in autumn (87%) and spring (75%). The local municipalities with the highest prevalence were Amahlathi (fly parasite, 91.3%), Dr Beyers Naude (ectoparasite, 43.6%), Intsika Yethu (endoparasite, 75%), Makana (protozoa, 45.8%), Mbhashe (hemoparasite, 40%), Raymond Mhlaba municipality (hemoparasite, 12.5%), and Lukhanji (fly parasite, 8.7%). Parasitic diseases diagnosed in the province between 2013 and 2018 were babesiosis (1.7%), anaplasmosis (2.1%), distomatosis (0.1%), goat mange (0.2%), and sheep scab (94%). Conclusion: The prevalence of parasitic diseases was found unevenly distributed in the local municipalities of the ECP and mostly diagnosed in autumn and spring compared to summer and winter. This study provides baseline information to guide policy-making on disease preventative actions. The recommended action would include appropriate and timely use of acaricide to mitigate problems associated with parasitic diseases.

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BACKGROUND: Many communities in developing countries rely on ecosystem services (ESs) associated with wild and cultivated plant species. Plant resources provide numerous ESs and goods that support human well-being and survival. The aim of this study was to identify and characterize wild and tended plant species, and also investigate how local communities in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa perceive ESs associated with plant resources. METHODS: The study was conducted in six local municipalities in the Eastern Cape Province, between March 2016 and September 2021. Data on socio-economic characteristics of the participants, useful plants harvested from the wild and managed in home gardens were documented by means of questionnaires, observation and guided field walks with 196 participants. The ESs were identified using a free listing technique. RESULTS: A total of 163 plant species were recorded which provided 26 cultural, regulating and provisioning ESs. Provisioning ESs were the most cited with at least 25 plant species contributing towards generation of cash income, food, traditional and ethnoveterinary medicines. Important species recorded in this study with relative frequency of citation (RFC) values > 0.3 included Alepidea amatymbica, Allium cepa, Aloe ferox, Artemisia afra, Brassica oleracea, Capsicum annuum, Cucurbita moschata, Hypoxis hemerocallidea, Opuntia ficus-indica, Spinacia oleracea, Vachellia karroo and Zea mays. CONCLUSION: Results of this study highlight the importance of plant resources to the well-being of local communities in the Eastern Cape within the context of provision of essential direct and indirect ESs such as food, medicinal products, construction materials, fodder, regulating, supporting and cultural services. The ESs are the basis for subsistence livelihoods in rural areas, particularly in developing countries such as South Africa. Therefore, such body of knowledge can be used as baseline data for provision of local support for natural resource management initiatives in the province and other areas of the country.

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BACKGROUND: Given the physical and mental health consequences of tobacco use amongst individuals with mental illness, it was imperative to assess the burden of tobacco use in this population. AIM: This study examined the patterns and factors associated with tobacco use in individuals attending the outpatient unit. SETTING: Cecilia Makiwane Hospital Mental Health Department in Eastern Cape province, South Africa. METHODS: Lifetime (ever use) use and current use of any tobacco products were examined in a cross-sectional study of 390 individuals between March and June 2020. A logistic regression was fitted to determine the correlates of lifetime and current use of any tobacco products. RESULTS: The rates of ever use and current use of tobacco products were 59.4% and 44.6%, respectively. Of the participants interviewed, lifetime tobacco use was more prevalent amongst individuals with schizophrenia (67.9%) and cannabis-induced disorders (97.3%) and lower in those with major depressive disorders (36.1%) and bipolar and related disorders (43.5%). Men were six times more likely to have ever used or currently use tobacco products in comparison to women. Also, those who had a salaried job or owned a business were over three times more likely to have ever used or currently use tobacco products compared with those receiving government social grants. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of tobacco use in this study was significantly higher than the general population in the Eastern Cape. Therefore, smoking prevention and cessation interventions targeted at the general population should target this often neglected sub-population in the region.

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BACKGROUND: Over the years, there has been a clarion call for legalising marijuana cultivation and trading for commercial purposes in South Africa. Proponents of the call argue that the criminalisation of commercial marijuana cultivation and trading has failed to halt illicit marijuana cultivation and trading. However, the views of those who economically benefit from the illicit marijuana trade on its legalisation remain empirically unsolicited. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to solicit the views of illegal marijuana growers and traders from two selected communities in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa regarding the commercial legalisation of marijuana cultivation and trading to inform policy on the debate. METHODS: In-depth key informant interview approach was used to interview 18 purposively sampled participants that were selected through the snowball sampling technique. The data were analysed using the thematic content analysis approach. RESULTS: Participants had both positive and negative perceptions of the possible legalisation of marijuana cultivation and trading. On the positive side, participants indicated freedom from police, the opportunity to grow marijuana on a larger scale, capital acquisition for commercial marijuana cultivation and trading, and regulation of marijuana prices through unionisation as some of the benefits they would derive from the commercial legalisation of marijuana cultivation and trading. On the negative side, loss of their source of livelihood, fall in the price of marijuana and perceived increase in school drop-out rates were the concerns raised. CONCLUSION: While participants relished improvement in their economic fortunes upon commercial legalisation of marijuana cultivation and trading, they were also apprehensive about this policy due to the perceived consequences it may have on their livelihoods and communities. We, therefore, recommend that future discussions of the commercial legalisation of marijuana cultivation and trading in South Africa should be done in consultation with illicit marijuana growers and traders to ensure that their interests are safeguarded by such a policy.

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BACKGROUND: Enteroviruses are amongst the most common causes of aseptic meningitis. Between November 2018 and May 2019, an outbreak of enterovirus-associated aseptic meningitis cases was noted in the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces, South Africa. OBJECTIVES: To describe the epidemiology and phylogeography of enterovirus infections during an aseptic meningitis outbreak in the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa. METHODS: Cerebrospinal fluid samples from suspected cases were screened using a polymerase chain reaction targeting the 5'UTR. Confirmed enterovirus-associated meningitis samples underwent molecular typing through species-specific VP1/VP2 primers and pan-species VP1 primers. RESULTS: Between November 2018 and May 2019, 3497 suspected cases of aseptic meningitis were documented in the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces. Median age was 8 years (range 0-61), interquartile range (IQR=4-13 years), 405/735 (55%) male. 742/3497 (21%) cases were laboratory - confirmed enterovirus positive by routine diagnostic PCR targeting the 5'UTR. 128/742 (17%) underwent molecular typing by VP1 gene sequencing. Echovirus 4 (E4) was detected in 102/128 (80%) cases. Echovirus 9 was found in 7%, Coxsackievirus A13 in 3%. 10 genotypes contributed to the remaining 10% of cases. Synonymous mutations were found in most cases, with sporadic amino acid changes in 13 (12.7%) cases. CONCLUSION: The aseptic meningitis outbreak was associated with echovirus 4. Stool samples are valuable for molecular typing in CSF confirmed EV-associated aseptic meningitis.

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The boophilid ticks are regarded as highly adaptive tick species in tropical and subtropical regions and considered to be the most economically important ectoparasites to cattle worldwide. To that, a geographical survey to investigate the distribution of boophilid ticks on grazing cattle was conducted seasonally between October 2018 and September 2019 at Elundini, Senqu and Walter Sisulu Local Municipalities in the north-eastern region of the Eastern Cape Province (ECP). Ten cattle were selected randomly during the tick sampling at each locality. Ticks were carefully removed from cattle and placed into sampling tubes containing 70% ethanol. During tick sampling, special attention was paid to the tick predilection sites such as lower perineum, neck, dewlap and ventral body parts which are the preferred sites for blue ticks. Based on the morphological traits, a total of 6176 ticks belonging to two boophilid tick species of Rhipicephalus were identified: Rhipicephalus decoloratus (98.30%) and Rhipicephalus microplus (1.70%). Locality and season significantly influenced boophilid tick distribution (P < 0.05). Rhipicephalus decoloratus had a significantly higher prevalence (P < 0.05) in Elundini during the hot-dry (3.37 ± 0.121) and hot-wet (3.35 ± 0.121) seasons compared to other localities. In Senqu, R. microplus had high counts (P < 0.05) during the post-rainy season (1.06 ± 0027) compared to other localities. Interestingly, the current study recorded Asiatic invasive pantropical blue tick (R. microplus) for the first time in the north-eastern region of the ECP. This tick is of great veterinary economic importance locally and globally, and thus necessitates continuous monitoring and control.

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BACKGROUND: Although commercial cultivation and trading of marijuana, commonly known as cannabis or dagga in the South African context, remains an illicit practice, adolescents actively engage in it. However, contextual influences that sustain adolescent involvement in illicit marijuana-related activties remain empirically unascertained. OBJECTIVE: This study sought to ascertain the various contextual influences of adolescent illicit marijuana cultivation and trading in two communities in the Ingquza Hill Local Municipality (IHLM) of South Africa, using the tenets of the Socio-Ecological Model (SEM). METHODS: The study utilised focus group discussions approach to interview thirty-three purposefully sampled participants who were recruited through the snowball sampling technique. A semi-structured interview guide was used to conduct the interviews, while thematic content analysis was used to analyse the data. RESULTS: We found that illicit adolescent marijuana cultivation and trading was influenced by eleven contextual factors that are grouped under four levels of socio-ecological influence. These include intrapersonal influences (knowledge and skills in marijuana cultivation and courage), interpersonal influences (peer and family influences), communal level influences (economic reasons, early childhood exposure to marijuana activities, protection of family lands, the topography of the area and soil fertility) and policy-related influences (lack of communal bylaws on marijuana activities and laxity in law enforcement). CONCLUSION: It is recommended that substance abuse prevention policies and programmes focus on discouraging children from engaging in illicit marijuana activities in IHLM across the four tenets of SEM and curtailing adolescent involvement in marijuana cultivation and trading. There is also the need to incorporate the law enforcement approach into demand reduction strategies of the National Drug Master Plan (NDMP), which employs only an educative approach in its current form. Working agreements between municipal authorities, law enforcement agents and social service professionals also need to be strengthened to push demand reduction strategies for marijuana in communities to protect the rights of children as enshrined in the Children's Act, 38 of 2005.

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HIV-1 subtype C is the predominant circulating virus in South Africa. There are reports of non-C subtypes emerging in different regions of the country, however, very little information exists on the genetic diversity of HIV in the Eastern Cape Province, despite having the third largest HIV epidemic in the country. In the current study, a near full-length genomic sequence obtained from a heterosexual woman in the Eastern Cape (ADE/CMH/0032), was analyzed using two rapid online subtyping tools; REGA and the jumping Profile Hidden Markov Model (jpHMM). There was agreement between the two tools in the assignment of the pol, Vif, and vpr regions, identified as a C/D recombinant (pol) and subtype C (vif and vpr). Some degree of agreement existed in the assignment of the Gag region, as recombinant: A1/C/B/D by REGA, and A1/C/D by jPHMM, respectively. There was disparity between the two online tools in the subtype assignment of the remaining gene regions. Phylogenetic analysis with pure subtype reference sequences showed that the query sequence clustered with a subtype C reference strain, with a low bootstrap value of 43%. This is the first report from South Africa of a putative unique recombinant as classified by rapid online subtyping tools, involving subtype A1, C, D, B, and K. However, the clinical and epidemiological implications of this variant remain unclear. Further studies are needed to fully understand the genetic diversity of HIV in the Eastern Cape.

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Porcine and human cysticercosis, caused by the larval stage of tapeworm Taenia solium, is a zoonosis in southern Africa and known to be endemic in South Africa, mainly in Eastern Cape Province. No efforts to control or eradicate this parasite have been made, despite the increasing occurrence in most Eastern Cape districts, except for routine meat inspection at local abattoirs. The parasite poses a potentially serious agricultural problem, public health risk and economic loss amongst Eastern Cape smallholder pig production communities. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of routine meat inspection for the detection of porcine cysticercosis in pigs from rural smallholder/subsistence production systems in Eastern Cape Province villages. The effectiveness of meat inspection, by registered meat inspectors, in the detection of pigs infected with T. solium cysts was assessed and compared with whole carcass dissection as the "gold standard" method. The commercial antigen enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (B158/B160 Ag-ELISA) kit screened all the slaughtered animals. The proportion of pigs found infected with T. solium cysts, as measured by meat inspection, was lower (5%, 9/180) than with carcass dissection (18.9%, 34/180) and B158/B60 Ag-ELISA test (21.6%, 38/176). Four out of 180 carcasses were heavily infested with T. solium cysts, evenly distributed throughout the carcasses, to a level impossible to enumerate. Of the remaining 176 carcasses, approximately 526 cysticerci, distributed at various anatomical regions of the pig, were counted during carcass dissection. Sites with higher cyst counts, such as the back and hind leg, do not form part of the normal meat inspection regime. The level of agreement (Kappa statistic) between dissection (gold standard) and meat inspection of the two districts was negative (-0.1955). There was a slight agreement in the Kappa statistic (0.0328) between dissection and B158/B60 Ag-ELISA. This study confirms that current meat inspection procedures alone are not sufficiently sensitive to detect all cases of porcine cysticercosis at the abattoirs and require modifications, or should be supplemented by other methods. A risk-based meat safety assurance system, such as HACCP, that considers specific food safety aspects before and after the abattoir (point of slaughter) should be followed. Before slaughter, aspects such as origin, husbandry practices and on-farm animal health control should be considered; after slaughter, the abattoir should inform the next entity in the supply chain of the limitations of meat inspections and the real meaning of an "Approval" stamp. New validated testing methods that can be routinely used should be developed, and government should develop policies and legislation that promotes a risk-based meat safety assurance system throughout the food supply chain.

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Enteromiuspallidus was described by Smith in 1841 without a designated type specimen for the species. Herein, we designate a specimen from the Baakens River system as a neotype for E.pallidus and provide a thorough description for this species to facilitate ongoing taxonomic revisions of southern African Enteromius. Enteromiuspallidus can be distinguished from the other minnows in the "goldie barb group" by having an incomplete lateral line, lack of distinct chevron or tubular markings around lateral line pores, absence of a distinct lateral stripe, absence of wavy parallel lines along scale rows and lack of black pigmentation around the borders of the scales. We provide mtDNA COI sequences for the neotype and an additional specimen from the Baakens River as DNA barcodes of types and topotypes are a fundamental requirement for further taxonomic studies.

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The southern cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, is an economically important tick that parasitises cattle and is found on other host species if they graze with cattle. The R. (B.) microplus is a highly adapted tick species prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In Africa, it has expanded its range and was reported to supersede the native tick, R. (B.) decoloratus. The objective of the study was to determine the distribution of R. (B.) microplus under different ecological zones in the western-central regions of Eastern Cape Province. Engorged adult blue ticks were collected monthly from 360 randomly selected cattle and free living ticks from six replicate drags of the vegetation over a period of 1 year at Bedford Dry Grassland (BDG), Kowie Thicket (KT) and Bhisho Thornveld (BT). A special attention was paid to the lower perineum, neck, dewlap and ventral body parts which are the preferred sites for blue ticks during sampling. In this study, 9 species of ticks which grouped under 5 genera were identified. The identified species of ticks were Amblyomma hebraeum, Haemaphysalis elliptica, Hyalomma rufipes, Ixodes pilosus, R. (B.) decoloratus, R. appendiculatus, R. evertsi evertsi, R. follis and R. simus. Only adult R. (B.) decoloratus (n = 8090) ticks were collected from cattle between April 2016 and March 2017. A total of 4382 females and 3708 males of R. (B.) decoloratus were recovered during the survey. Of the ticks (n = 2885) collected from the vegetation, R. (B.) decoloratus was the most abundant species with a relative prevalence of 58.16%, followed by R. appendiculatus (18.37%) and R. evertsi evertsi (16.90%). Least abundant ticks were H. rufipes (2.98%), A. hebraeum (2.46%), H. elliptica (0.38%), R. follis (0.34%), I. pilosus (0.24%) and R. simus (0.17%). The distribution of R. (B.) decoloratus ticks differ significantly (P < 0.05) among the vegetation types. Significantly more (P < 0.05) engorged R. (B.) decoloratus were collected in KT during summer season (1.39 ± 0.063 females and 1.30 ± 0.063 males) compared to other vegetation types. The R. (B.) decoloratus larvae were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in BT (20.56±1.154) and KT (18.50±1.154) vegetation types during the spring season. R. (B.) microplus was not found in the present study, signifying that it is not yet established in western-central regions of the Eastern Cape Province and as such, continuous monitoring would be advisable.

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A total of 31,425 ticks were collected from 10 cattle and also from six drag-samples during the 12-month study period. Adult ticks were removed from the right hand side of each animal and all instars of ticks were placed in containers filled with 70% ethanol. Based on morphological traits, 10 tick species were identified: Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (32.5%), R. evertsi evertsi (18.8%), R. appendiculatus (17.3%), Amblyomma hebraeum (16.3%), R. simus (7.7%), Ixodes pilosus (3.8%), Hyalomma rufipes (3.5%), R. follis (0.08%), Haemaphysalis elliptica (0.04%), H. silacea (0.02%). The southern African yellow dog tick, H. elliptica, was only found on vegetation. The agro-ecological zones differ significantly in tick species and their distribution. The A. hebraeum and R. evertsi evertsi counts were higher in Kowie Thicket (KT) during summer season (2.05 ± 0.01 and 1.00 ± 0.09, respectively) compared to Bedford Dry Grassland (BDG) and Bhisho Thornveld (BT) veld types. In all vegetation types, R. appendiculatus had higher counts in KT in spring (0.91 ± 0.08), summer (0.78 ± 0.08) and winter (0.78 ± 0.08). Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus was more frequent in the BT (1.78 ± 0.11) during the summer season. BDG had lower tick infestation with R. evertsi evertsi being the most frequent species in summer. No H. rufipes was collected in the KT. Of epidemiological interest, R. (B.) microplus was absent in the study area which needs further investigation. Within the context of this study, we found agro-ecological differences and seasonal variations to have influence on tick species distribution.

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Global demand for food is surging upward due to the expansion of human population. Hence food production and supply need to double with little or no waste to meet this demand. Food loss at any point in the farm to fork chain inhibits the stability of food security at household and national level. A retrospective (AR) and a post mortem meat inspection (PMMI) study to identify major causes of offal and carcass condemnation was conducted in three abattoirs namely, Adeliade, Queenstown and East London abattoirs represented as AD, QT, and EL respectively. The retrospective study revealed the main causes of tongue condemnation as abscess (0.08%, 0.03% and 0.05%) and actinobacillosis (0.02%, 0% and 0.02%) respectively. The spleen was condemned due to abscess (0.35%, 0.94% and 0.17%) and splenomegaly (0.21%, 0.55% and 0.2%). The heart was condemned due to cyst (0.24%, 0.36% and 0.2%) and inflammation (0.9%, 1.85%, and 0.75%). While the kidney, was condemned due to cyst (0.08%, 0.23% and 0.16%) and nephritis (0.94%, 1.01% and 1.18%). However, a greater percentage of condemnation was recorded during the active abattoir study. During the same period, partial carcass condemnations were mainly due to bruises (63.3%, 50.4% and 41.0%), abscess (7%, 6% and 14%) and improper evisceration (19%, 31% and 27%). The combined monetary loss due to offal's and carcass condemnation during the AR and PMMI study was estimated as ZAR 255194.4 (34191.5 USD) and ZAR 25958.8 (2570.2 USD) respectively. This study identified major causes of offals and carcass condemnation as abscess, bruises, actinobacillosis, cyst, inflammatory conditions and improper evisceration. It can be used as starting point information for early warning on livestock diseases of economic loss in South Africa.

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BACKGROUND: Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) remains the main causative viral pathogen of porcine circovirus-associated diseases (PCVAD) of great economic importance in pig industry globally. This present study aims at determining the occurrence of the viral pathogen in swine herds of the Province. RESULTS: The data obtained revealed that 15.93% of the screened samples (54/339) from the swine herds of the studied areas were positive for PCV2; while the severity of occurrence of the viral pathogen as observed at farm level ranges from approximately 5.6 to 60% in the studied farms. The majority (15 out of 17 = 88%) of the analyzed sequences were found clustering with other PCV2b strains in the phylogenetic analysis. More interestingly, two other sequences obtained were also found clustering within PCV2d genogroup, which is presently another fast-spreading genotype with observable higher virulence in global swine herds. CONCLUSION: This is the first report of PCV2 in swine herds of the Province and the first detection of PCV2b and PCV2d in South African swine herds. It follows the first reported case of PCV2a in an outbreak of porcine multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) in Gauteng Province, South Africa more than one decade ago. This finding confirmed the presence of this all-important viral pathogen in pigs of the region; which could result in a serious outbreak of PCVAD and huge economic loss at the instances of triggering factors if no appropriate measures are taken to effectively curb its spread.

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