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ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To describe the human resources for health and analyze the inequality in its distribution in Mexico. METHODS Cross-sectional study based on the National Occupation and Employment Survey (ENOE in Spanish) for the fourth quarter of 2018 in Mexico. Graduated physicians and nurses, and auxiliary/technician nurses with completed studies were considered as human resources for health. States were grouped by degree of marginalization. Densities of human resources for health per 1,000 inhabitants, Index of Dissimilarity (DI) and Concentration Indices (CI) were estimated as measures of unequal distribution. RESULTS The density of human resources for health was 4.6 per 1,000 inhabitants. We found heterogeneity among states with densities from 2.3 to 10.5 per 1,000 inhabitants. Inequality was higher in the states with a very low degree of marginalization (CI = 0.4) than those with high marginalization (CI = 0.1), and the inequality in the distribution of physicians (CI = 0.5) was greater than in graduated nurses (CI = 0.3) among states. In addition, 17 states showed a density above the threshold of 4.5 per 1,000 inhabitants proposed in the Global Strategy on Human Resources for Health. That implies a deficit of nearly 60,000 human resources for health among the 15 states below the threshold. For all states, to reach a density equal to the national density of 4.6, about 12.6% of human health resources would have to be distributed among states that were below national density. CONCLUSIONS In Mexico, there is inequality in the distribution of human resources for health, with state differences. Government mechanisms could support the balance in the labor market of physicians and nurses through a human resources policy.

RESUMEN OBJETIVO Describir los recursos humanos en salud y analizar la desigualdad en su distribución en México. MÉTODOS Estudio transversal basado en la Encuesta Nacional de Ocupación y Empleo del cuarto trimestre de 2018 en México. Se consideraron como recursos humanos en salud médicos y enfermeras con licenciatura, y personal de enfermería auxiliar/técnica con estudios concluidos. Se agrupó a los estados por grado de marginación y se estimó densidades de recursos humanos en salud por 1.000 habitantes, Índices de Disimilitud e Índices de Concentración (IC) como medidas de desigualdad en la distribución. RESULTADOS La densidad de recursos humanos en salud fue de 4,6 por 1.000 habitantes; se observó heterogeneidad entre los estados con que van 2,3 hasta 10,5 por 1.000 habitantes. La desigualdad fue mayor en los estados con muy bajo grado de marginación (IC = 0,4) que en los estados de muy alto grado (IC = 0,1), y fue mayor la desigualdad en la distribución de los médicos (IC = 0,5) que en las enfermeras profesionales (IC = 0,3) entre los estados. Para que todos los estados tuvieran una densidad igual a la nacional de 4,6, se tendrían que distribuir alrededor de 12,6% de los recursos humanos en salud entre los estados que estuvieron por debajo de la densidad nacional. Adicionalmente, 17 estados tuvieron una densidad superior al umbral de 4,5 por 1.000 habitantes propuesto en la Estrategia Global en Recursos Humanos para la Salud. Eso implica un déficit de casi 60 mil recursos humanos en salud entre los 15 estados por debajo del umbral. CONCLUSIONES En México existe desigualdad en la distribución de recursos humanos en salud, diferenciada en los estados. Mecanismos gubernamentales a través de una política de recursos humanos podrían incentivar el equilibrio en el mercado de laboral de los médicos y enfermeras.

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Resumo O estudo identificou o padrão de evolução, distribuição e expansão dos cursos de medicina no Brasil e descreveu os processos governamentais relacionados à ampliação da oferta de vagas. Trata-se de estudo descritivo, baseado em dados disponíveis no sistema do Ministério da Educação sobre escolas médicas. Com as informações sobre os cursos, desde os primeiros implantados, estabelecem-se seis períodos de governo para análise: de 1808 a 1963 (monarquia e governos republicanos iniciais), de 1964 a 1988 (governos militares - José Sarney), de 1989 a 1994 (Fernando Collor - Itamar Franco), de 1995 a 2002 (Fernando Henrique Cardoso), de 2003 a 2010 (Lula) e 2011 a 2018 (Dilma Rousseff - Michel Temer). Observou-se relevante expansão de escolas a partir dos governos militares, com pico em 2014 (Dilma Rousseff), frente à implementação do Programa Mais Médicos. Ao longo dos períodos analisados, o ensino médico tornou-se progressivamente privatizado e parcialmente deslocado para as Regiões Norte, Nordeste e Centro-Oeste e para cidades de médio e pequeno portes populacionais no interior dos estados. Os resultados apontam que a combinação de gestão governamental das políticas de saúde e educação e de desenvolvimento socioeconômico influenciaram a expansão dos cursos de medicina e as marcadas diferenças intra e interregionais.

Abstract The study identified the pattern of evolution, distribution and expansion of the undergraduate medicine courses in Brazil and described the governmental processes related to the increase in the capacity of the courses. It is a descriptive study based on data available in the system of the Brazilian Ministry of Education about medical schools. With information about the courses dating back to the first that were implemented in the country, we could establish six periods of government for the analysis: from 1808 to 1963 (from the Monarchy to the first republican governments); from 1964 to 1988 (from the military dictatorship to the government of José Sarney); From 1989 to 1994 (Fernando Collor - Itamar Franco); from 1995 to 2002 (Fernando Henrique Cardoso); from 2003 to 2010 (Lula); and from 2011 to 2018 (Dilma Rousseff - Michel Temer). We observed a significant expansion of the schools starting with the military dictatorship and peaking in 2014 (Dilma Rousseff), and the implementation of the More Doctors Program (Programa Mais Médicos, in Portuguese). Throughout the analyzed periods, the teaching of Medicine became ever more privatized, and was partially shifted to the Northern, Northeastern and Midwestern regions of Brazil, and to medium-sized and small municipalities in the countryside of the states. The results indicate that the combination of the management by the government of the health, education and socioeconomic development policies had an influence on the expansion of the Medicine undergraduate courses and the marked intra- and interregional differences.

Resumen El estudio identificó el patrón de evolución, distribución y expansión de las carreras de Medicina en Brasil y describió los procesos gubernamentales relacionados al aumento de la oferta de vacantes. Se trata de un estudio descriptivo, con base en datos disponibles en el sistema del Ministerio de Educación sobre escuelas de medicina. Con la información sobre las carreras, desde las primeras implantadas, se establecen seis períodos de gobierno para análisis: desde 1808 hasta 1963 (monarquía y gobiernos republicanos iniciales), desde 1964 hasta 1988 (gobiernos militares - José Sarney), desde 1989 hasta 1994 (Fernando Collor - Itamar Franco), desde 1995 hasta 2002 (Fernando Henrique Cardoso), desde 2003 hasta 2010 (Lula) y desde 2011 hasta 2018 (Dilma Rousseff - Michel Temer). Se observó una importante aumento de las escuelas a partir de los gobiernos militares, con un pico en el 2014 (Dilma Rousseff), frente a la implementación del Programa Más Médicos. A lo largo de los períodos analizados la educación médica se ha ido privatizando progresivamente y se trasladó parcialmente hacia las Regiones Norte, Nordeste y Centro-Oeste, y a ciudades de tamaño medio y pequeño en el interior de los estados. Los resultados indican que la combinación de la gestión gubernamental de las políticas de salud y educación y de desarrollo socioeconómico influyeron en la expansión de las carreras de medicina y las marcadas diferencias intra e interregionales.

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BACKGROUND: The internal migration of physicians from one place to another in the same country can unbalance the supply and distribution of these professionals in national health systems. In addition to economic, social and demographic issues, there are individual and professional factors associated with a physician's decision to migrate. In Brazil, there is an ongoing debate as to whether opening medicine programmes in the interior of the country can induce physicians to stay in these locations. This article examines the migration of physicians in Brazil based on the location of the medical schools from which they graduated. METHODS: A cross-sectional design based on secondary data of 275,801 physicians registered in the Regional Councils of Medicine (Conselhos Regionais de Medicina-CRMs) who graduated between 1980 and 2014. The evaluated outcome was migration, which was defined as moving away from the state where they completed the medicine programme to another state where they currently work or live. RESULTS: 57.3% of the physicians in the study migrated. The probability of migration ratio was greater in small grouped municipalities and lower in state capitals. 93.4% of the physicians who trained in schools located in cities with less than 100,000 inhabitants migrated. Fewer women (54.2%) migrated than men (60.0%). More than half of the physicians who graduated between 1980 and 2014 are in federative units different from the unit in which they graduated. Individual factors, such as age, gender, time of graduation and specialty, vary between the physicians who did or did not migrate. CONCLUSIONS: The probability of migration ratio was greater in small municipalities of the Southeast region and strong in the states of Tocantins, Acre and Santa Catarina. New studies are recommended to deepen understanding of the factors related to the internal migration and non-migration of physicians to improve human resource for health policies.

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Background: The internal migration of physicians from one place to another in the same country can unbalance the supply and distribution of these professionals in national health systems. In addition to economic, social and demographic issues, there are individual and professional factors associated with a physician’s decision to migrate. In Brazil, there is an ongoing debate as to whether opening medicine programmes in the interior of the country can induce physicians to stay in these locations. This article examines the migration of physicians in Brazil based on the location of the medical schools from which they graduated. Methods: A cross-sectional design based on secondary data of 275,801 physicians registered in the Regional Councils of Medicine (Conselhos Regionais de Medicina-CRMs) who graduated between 1980 and 2014. The evaluated outcome was migration, which was defined as moving away from the state where they completed the medicine programme to another state where they currently work or live. Results: 57.3% of the physicians in the study migrated. The probability of migration ratio was greater in small grouped municipalities and lower in state capitals. 93.4% of the physicians who trained in schools located in cities with less than 100,000 inhabitants migrated. Fewer women (54.2%) migrated than men (60.0%). More than half of the physicians who graduated between 1980 and 2014 are in federative units different from the unit in which they graduated. Individual factors, such as age, gender, time of graduation and specialty, vary between the physicians who did or did not migrate. Conclusions: The probability of migration ratio was greater in small municipalities of the Southeast region and strong in the states of Tocantins, Acre and Santa Catarina. New studies are recommended to deepen understanding of the factors related to the internal migration and non-migration of physicians to improve human resource for health policies.

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Abstract Objectives: to characterize the medical circularity in Brazil and to discuss the case in the North and South Barretos regions, São Paulo. Methods: a cross-sectional study using secondary data from the national registrations and a case study of physician's sample in the North-Barretos and South-Barretos regions. Results: in the health regions in Brazil, on an average, 45% of the physicians in activities circulate in more than one region. The Capitals of the States have more stable physicians while more than 50% of the medical workforce work in other regions. The professionals with the greatest tendency to move from one work place to another are those who work in surgical specialties in services to uphold the diagnostic and therapy. Conclusions: there is a high circulation of physicians among the regions, with distinct characteristics between geographical and health regions. In case of Barretos area, the professionals move from one workplace to another according to their professional association and specialized practice.

Resumo Objetivos: caracterizar a circularidade médica no Brasil e a discutir o caso das regiões Norte-Barretos e Sul-Barretos, São Paulo. Métodos: estudo transversal com uso de dados secundários de cadastros nacionais e estudo de caso de uma amostra de médicos nas regiões Norte-Barretos e Sul-Barretos. Resultados: em média, nas regiões de saúde do Brasil, 45% dos médicos em atividades circulam em mais de uma região. As capitais dos estados têm médicos mais estáveis, enquanto que mais de 50% da força de trabalho médica atua em outras regiões. Os profissionais com maior tendência de mudança são aqueles que trabalham em especialidades cirúrgicas em serviços para apoiar o diagnóstico e a terapia. Conclusões: há uma alta circulação de médicos entre as regiões, com características distintas entre regiões geográficas e regiões de saúde. No caso de Barretos, os profissionais se movimentam em função de sua associação profissional e de especialidades praticadas.

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Objectives: to characterize the medical circularity in Brazil and to discuss the case in the North and South Barretos regions, São Paulo. Methods: a cross-sectional study using secondary data from the national registrations and a case study of physician’s sample in the North-Barretos and South-Barretos regions. Results: in the health regions in Brazil, on an average, 45% of the physicians in activities circulate in more than one region. The Capitals of the States have more stable physicians while more than 50% of the medical workforce work in other regions. The professionals with the greatest tendency to move from one work place to another are those who work in surgical specialties in services to uphold the diagnostic and therapy. Conclusions: there is a high circulation of physicians among the regions, with distinct characteristics between geographical and health regions. In case of Barretos area, the professionals move from one workplace to another according to their professional association and specialized practice.

Objetivos: caracterizar a circularidade médica no Brasil e a discutir o caso das regiões Norte-Barretos e Sul-Barretos, São Paulo. Métodos: estudo transversal com uso de dados secundários de cadastros nacionais e estudo de caso de uma amostra de médicos nas regiões Norte-Barretos e Sul-Barretos. Resultados: em média, nas regiões de saúde do Brasil, 45% dos médicos em atividades circulam em mais de uma região. As capitais dos estados têm médicos mais estáveis, enquanto que mais de 50% da força de trabalho médica atua em outras regiões. Os profissionais com maior tendência de mudança são aqueles que trabalham em especialidades cirúrgicas em serviços para apoiar o diagnóstico e a terapia. Resultados: em média, nas regiões de saúde do Brasil, 45% dos médicos em atividades circulam em mais de uma região. As capitais dos estados têm médicos mais estáveis, enquanto que mais de 50% da força de trabalho médica atua em outras regiões. Os profissionais com maior tendência de mudança são aqueles que trabalham em especialidades cirúrgicas em serviços para apoiar o diagnóstico e a terapia. Conclusões: há uma alta circulação de médicos entre as regiões, com características distintas entre regiões geográficas e regiões de saúde. No caso de Barretos, os profissionais se movimentam em função de sua associação profissional e de especialidades praticadas.

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Este estudo tem como objetivos identificar os principais argumentos utilizados durante as discussões públicas sobre o Programa Mais Médicos e analisar a estrutura das argumentações e sua adequação às regras de uma discussão crítica. São analisados debates veiculados na televisão e na internet envolvendo agentes públicos e da sociedade civil. A análise foi realizada a partir da abordagem pragma-dialética de Van Eemeren e Grootendorst e seu modelo de discussão crítica. Em todos os debates são observadas falácias nas argumentações, o que dificulta o avanço no sentido de se chegar à resolução das diferenças de opiniões. Esses entraves no diálogo acabam por dificultar também a resolução de problemas concretos que poderia fazer avançar o Programa Mais Médicos e, assim, melhorar as condições de acesso à saúde da população.

The objective of this study was to identify the main arguments used during public discussions of the More Doctors Program and analyze the structure of the arguments and their compliance with the rules for critical discussions. Discussions broadcast on television and the Internet involving public and civil society actors were examined. The analysis was based on the pragmadialectical approach and critical discussion model developed by van Eemeren and Grootendorst. In all the discussions, fallacies in the arguments can be detected, which hinders resolving differences of opinion. These impediments to dialogue also make it difficult to solve concrete problems that could help move the More Doctors Program forward and improve the access of the population to health care.

El objetivo de este estudio es identificar los principales argumentos utilizados durante las discusiones públicas sobre el Programa Más Médicos y analizar la estructura de las argumentaciones y su adecuación a las reglas de una discusión crítica. Se analizan debates exhibidos en la televisión y en internet, envolviendo a agentes públicos y de la sociedad civil. El análisis se realizó a partir del abordaje pragma-dialéctico de Van Eemeren y Grootendorst y su modelo de discusión crítica. En todos los debates se observan falacias en las argumentaciones, lo que dificulta el avance en el sentido de llegar a la resolución de las diferencias de opinión. Esos obstáculos en el diálogo terminan dificultando también la resolución de problemas concretos que podría hacer que avanzara el Programa Más Médicos y de esa forma mejorar las condiciones de acceso a la salud de la población.

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A nova Política Nacional de Atenção Básica (PNAB) mantém a essência do documento anterior, ao mesmo tempo que incorpora as inovaçõesdos últimos 5 anos, como a recente flexibilização da carga horária semanal do médico de família e comunidade. O Ministério da Saúdetambém criou uma série de incentivos para o trabalho em municípios com dificuldade de atração ou retenção de médicos, mas ainda nãointerferiu na precariedade dos vínculos de trabalho. O Programa de Melhoria do Acesso e da Qualidade da Atenção Básica (PMAQ-AB)pode melhorar a discussão sobre o modelo de atenção primária à saúde no País, mas tem problemas técnicos e uma parte importantede seus instrumentos ainda são desconhecidos. A efetiva promoção do acesso e da qualidade passa pela imposição do limite teórico de4 mil pessoas por equipe, e pela seleção e/ou premiação de especialistas em medicina de família e comunidade.

The new National Primary Care Policy keeps the essence of the previous one while incorporating innovations from the past 5 years,such as the recent flexibility of the weekly working hours of medical doctors. The Brazilian Ministry of Health has also created a series ofworking incentives for the municipalities with difficulties in attracting and/or keeping physicians, but it has not tackled the issue of laborrelations precariousness yet. The National Program for Improvement in Access and Quality of Primary Care (PMAQ-AB) can contribute tothe discussion on the primary health care model in Brazil; but it has technical problems, and an important part of its instruments is stillunknown. The effective promotion of access and quality depends on enforcing the theoretical limit of 4,000 people per team and selectingand/or gratifying primary health care workers for their specialty in family and community medicine.

La nueva Política Nacional de Atención Primaria (PNAP) mantiene la esencia del anterior, al mismo tiempo que incorpora las innovacionesde los últimos 5 años, como la flexibilización reciente de la carga horaria semanal del médico de la familia y comunidad. El Ministerio deSalud de Brasil también creó una serie de incentivos para el trabajo en los municipios con dificultades para atraer o retener a los médicos,pero aún no abordó la cuestión de la precariedad de las relaciones laborales. El Programa de Mejoramiento del Acceso y de la Calidad dela Atención Primaria (PMAC-AP) puede mejorar la discusión sobre el modelo de atención primaria de salud en Brasil, pero hay problemastécnicos y algunos de sus instrumentos aún son desconocidos. La promoción efectiva del acceso y de la calidad pasa por la exigenciadel límite teórico de 4,000 personas por equipo, y por la selección y/o gratificación de trabajadores de atención primaria de salud por suespecialidad en medicina familiar y comunitaria.

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