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The copepod family Shiinoidae Cressey, 1975 currently comprises nine species of teleost parasites with unusual morphology and a unique attachment mechanism. Female shiinoids possess greatly enlarged antennae that oppose a rostrum, an elongate outgrowth of cuticle that originates between the antennules. The antennae form a moveable clasp against the rostrum which they use to attach to their host. In this study, we use micro-computed tomography (microCT) to examine specimens of Shiinoa inauris Cressey, 1975 in situ attached to host tissue in order to characterize the functional morphology and specific muscles involved in this novel mode of attachment and to resolve uncertainty regarding the segmental composition of the regions of the body. We review the host and locality data for all reports of shiinoids, revise the generic diagnoses for both constituent genera Shiinoa Kabata, 1968 and Parashiinoa West, 1986, transfer Shiinoa rostrata Balaraman, Prabha & Pillai, 1984 to Parashiinoa as Parashiinoa rostrata (Balaraman, Prabha & Pillai, 1984) n. comb., and present keys to the females and males of both genera.

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PURPOSE: A new species of the genus Ceratocolax Vervoort, 1965 is described based on specimens collected from the Tomtate grunt Haemulon aurolineatum Cuvier, caught in the coast of Angra dos Reis, off the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. METHODS: One hundred specimens of H. aurolineatum were purchased from the local fish market and examined for parasitic copepods. Parasites were fixed and preserved in 80% ethanol. Morphological features of the copepods were examined and drawn using an Olympus BX51 equipped with a drawing tube. RESULTS: Ceratocolax tavaresi n. sp. can be distinguished from all congeners by the following combination of characters in the adult female: (1) second endopodal segment of leg 3 with one seta, (2) lack of stout spinules along outer margins on rami of legs 2-4, (3) genital somite without flaplike structures, (4) terminal exopodal segment of leg 4 with seven elements; and in the adult male: (1) legs 1 to 4 with 3-segmented rami (except endopod of leg 4), (2) presence of a pair of blunt processes on dorsal surface of the third pedigerous somite, (3) second endopodal segment of leg 3 with one seta. CONCLUSION: The number of species of Ceratocolax reported in the Atlantic Ocean was increased to three, including the new species. This is the forty-second species of copepod found parasitizing haemulid fish in marine waters from the Americas; however, the diversity of parasitic copepods off this continent is still underestimated.

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Females of species of Lamproglena von Nordmann, 1832 are parasitic on the gills of teleost fishes and the 38 nominal species are based on mainly morphological data. Only four of these species have been genetically characterised and no mitochondrial data are available for the genus. The present study aimed to provide representative ribosomal DNA (rDNA) data for two additional species of Lamproglena from Africa: Lamproglena clariae Fryer, 1956 and Lamproglena hoi Dippenaar, Luus-Powell et Roux, 2001, alongside mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) for these and two other African species, Lamproglena hemprichii von Nordmann, 1832 and Lamproglena monodi Capart, 1944. The four species were collected from Clariidae, Cyprinidae, Alestidae and Cichlidae, respectively. Representative 18S rDNA and 28S rDNA data were obtained for L. clariae and L. hoi, while cox1 mtDNA was obtained for all four species. The respective haplotypes supported the distinctness of all species using all three gene regions investigated. Interestingly, species appeared to be grouped more by geographical origin than host family, with L. hoi more closely related to other African species than to Asian species also collected from cyprinid hosts. Even though the results presented here greatly add to the molecular data available for Lamproglena, there are still 32 (>80%) species for which no genetic data are available. The interpretation of the results presented here is thus preliminary and much more data are required before the phylogeny of this genus, and other members of the family, such as Lernaea Linnaeus, 1758, can be studied appropriately.

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Description and morphological analysis of copepods inhabiting a water body with high arsenic concentrations (32.79 to 62.29 mg L-1) were performed to identify some effect on the development of individuals due to the arsenic concentrations. Detailed morphology of prosomal and urosomal appendages along the development of the specimens was considered. The results showed that the freshwater copepod Paracyclops novenarius Reid, 1987 inhabits this water body, and previously, it was recorded as Paracyclops chiltoni (Thomson GM, 1882) on this site. Moreover, this becomes the first record of P. novenarius in Mexico. Morphological analysis showed a normal and stable development along the different instars, different arsenic concentrations in the media, and different sampled dates between the analyzed specimens, suggesting that the high arsenic concentrations do not affect the morphology of P. novenarius, including all its development and adult instars, which differs from other copepods and other groups such as Cladocera and Rotifera, where morphological changes due to metals and metalloids have been observed but in low concentrations of these elements. The results of this study contribute to the existing reports of the genus Paracyclops (Claus 1893) in Mexico and could provide information for environmental impact assessments on aquatic systems.

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Groundwater is one of our most important resources, however groundwater ecosystems are among the most understudied habitats of the planet earth. Studies on groundwater organisms are hampered by the difficult accessibility of species, the lack of morphological differentiation and the limitation for laboratory cultures. One important approach to overcome these shortcomings is to provide sensitive genetic methods to unravel patterns of biodiversity, population structure and gene flow in natural populations. In this study we present five sets of microsatellite markers developed for the isopods Asellus aquaticus and Proasellus slavus, the cyclopoides Paracyclops fimbriatus and Acanthocyclops sensitivus and the harpacticoide Bryocamptus echinatus (Crustacea). Two of these species were subjected to detailed population genetic analyses: We studied 501 specimens of Asellus aquaticus from four different regions in Northern Germany using nine microsatellite markers and 70 specimens of Bryocamptus echinatus using nine microsatellite markers from three different sampling sites in South-Western Germany. Our results show that genetic diversity is high (A. aquaticus: 10 to 20 and B. echinatus: 4 to 18 alleles per locus) among populations of aquatic invertebrates, populations are highly differentiated (FST > 0.2) and genetic differentiation was associated with geographic patterns. Applications of molecular genetic methods and their use for the detection of hydrological exchange processes relevant for drinking water suppliers are demonstrated and discussed.

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PURPOSE: To describe, based on morphological features, a new copepod species of Rhinergasilus, Rhinergasilus unguilongus n. sp., collected from gills of the Streaked prochilod, Prochilodus lineatus (Valenciennes, 1837), sampled in the Veados and Paranapanema Rivers, two tributaries of the Jurumirim Reservoir (Upper Paranapanema River, Paraná River Basin), São Paulo State, Brazil. METHODS: Fish were collected using multi-panel gill nets. The gills of each fish were washed and examined for copepods using a stereo microscope. The copepods found were stored in 70% ethanol, cleared in lactic acid, and mounted in Hoyer's medium. Drawings were made with the aid of a microscope equipped with a drawing tube. RESULTS: The new copepod species can be distinguished from its two congeners, Rhinergasilus piranhus (type-species) Boeger et Thatcher, 1988 and Rhinergasilus digitus Narciso, Brandão, Perbiche-Neves et Silva, 2020, due to its extremely long antennary claw (etymology of the species), being longer than the other antennary segments; third leg lacking any interpodal plate; and third endopodal segment of third leg lacking a distal spine. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the morphological differences, we erected a new species of Rhinergasilus. The new copepod represents the second report of a Rhinergasilus species parasitizing a fish from the Jurumirim Reservoir. It also represents the first report of this genus in P. lineatus.

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Copepods are well studied in South Korea, with the exception of marine non-parasitic cyclopoids, and especially cyclopinids; only three species were found so far here, and only one of them is endemic. A survey of intertidal interstitial faunas from sandy beaches revealed four endemic members of the genus Cyclopina Claus, 1863, which represents the first record of the largest cyclopinid genus in South Korea. A detailed study of their morphology revealed numerous differences, including in rarely studied cuticular organs. Some of these micro-characters could easily be homologised and showed little intraspecific variability, which might prove invaluable for matching sexes and reconstructing phylogenetic relationships. Cyclopina busanensis sp. nov. is described from both sexes collected near Busan (South Coast of South Korea), and is most similar to the only congener from Japan: C. kiraensis Horomi, 1984. Cyclopina koreana sp. nov. is described from both sexes collected near Gangneung (East Coast), and has no close relatives among currently known species. Cyclopina curtijeju sp. nov. is described from two females from Jeju (off South Coast); it is possibly closely related to C. smirnovi Herbst, 1982, but the latter is known from a single male from the Russian Far East. Cyclopina wido sp. nov. is described from both sexes from Wido (West Coast), and shows numerous reductions in segmentation and armature of appendages, most of them probably a consequence of its diminutive size. A table of 26 discrete and continuous characters commonly used in the taxonomy of this group is provided for 48 valid species and subspecies of Cyclopina.

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PURPOSE: To describe a new species of a parasitic copepod, Rhinergasilus digitus n. sp. (Cyclopoida, Ergasilidae), collected from the gills of the red-tailed lambari Astyanax fasciatus (Characiformes, Characidae) in two tributaries of the Jurumirim Reservoir (Upper Paranapanema River), São Paulo State, Brazil: Ribeirão dos Veados and Paranapanema River. METHODS: Fish were collected using multi-panel gills nets. The gill of each fish was washed and examined in a stereo microscope for copepods. The copepods found were stored in 70% ethanol, cleared in lactic acid, and mounted in Hoyer's medium. Drawings were made with the aid of a Leica microscope DMLS equipped with a drawing tube. RESULTS: The new species differs from its congeneric species, Rhinergasilus piranhus (type-species), in having comparatively biggest body size (body length: 535-598 µm in the new species vs. 237-282 µm in R. piranhus); second antennary segment armed with a minute sensillum near middle of inner margin and a row of spinules on outer margin; third exopodal segment of leg 1 with digitiform process; interpodal plates two and three both ornamented with spinules along posterior margin; leg 5 reduced and represented by two unequal setae. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the morphological differences described above, we erected a new species of Rhinergasilus. Rhinergasilus digitus n. sp. is the second ergasilid described from A. fasciatus, as well as it represents the first report of this genus in a characid fish.

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Crustacean copepods in high-latitude lakes frequently alter their pigmentation facultatively to defend themselves against prevailing threats, such as solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and visually oriented predators. Strong seasonality in those environments promotes phenotypic plasticity. To date, no one has investigated whether low-latitude copepods, experiencing continuous stress from UVR and predation threats, exhibit similar inducible defences. We here investigated the pigmentation levels of Bahamian 'blue hole' copepods, addressing this deficit. Examining several populations varying in predation risk, we found the lowest levels of pigmentation in the population experiencing the highest predation pressure. In a laboratory experiment, we found that, in contrast with our predictions, copepods from these relatively constant environments did show some changes in pigmentation subsequent to the removal of UVR; however, exposure to water from different predation regimes induced minor and idiosyncratic pigmentation change. Our findings suggest that low-latitude zooplankton in inland environments may exhibit reduced, but non-zero, levels of phenotypic plasticity compared with their high-latitude counterparts.

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The classification of the Thaumatopsyllidae within the Copepoda has been an issue of ongoing discussion since the discovery of Thaumatopsyllus paradoxus G.O. Sars, 1913 from the Norwegian coast. The family has been formally placed in the Monstrilloida, the Cyclopoida and even in its own order, the Thaumatopsylloida, based on different morphological criteria. We examined for the first time, the phylogenetic position of the Thaumatopsyllidae using gene sequences of 28S and 18S rRNA, as well as COI mtDNA, obtained from two thaumatopsyllid species occurring off the coast of southern California. We also fortuitously explored the phylogenetic relationships of the Cyclopoida in more detail than Khodami et al. (2017) by including a wider sample of key families such as the Erebonasteridae and Gisellinidae. Both Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian analyses revealed the Thaumatopsyllidae is nested in the Cyclopoida and is related to the marine Speleoithonidae. In addition, 16 families of the Cyclopoida are supported to be monophyletic, but surprisingly, the Cyclopidae is paraphyletic. The Cyclopicinidae is the first monophyletic offshoot of the cyclopoid tree, followed by two derived clades. The first clade contains a monophylum consisting of the Schminkepinellidae + Giselinidae which is sister to a clade including the monophyletic Erebonasteridae and all other poecilostome families. The second clade is divided into two main, well-supported family clusters. One includes the Cyclopidae encompassing two subfamilies (Eucylopinae and Cyclopinae), but unexpectedly the parasitic Lernaeidae cluster as a sister-group to the brackish water Halicyclops (subfamily Halicyclopinae) and the Euryteinae is the sister to all the rest of Cyclopidae s. l., making the Cyclopidae paraphyletic. To resolve this conundrum, we erected two families, Euryteidae and Halicyclopidae. The Cyclopidae s. str. retains the subfamilies Eucyclopinae and Cyclopinae, although our phylogeny does not support the reciprocal monophyly of these subfamilies. Our results support the gradual invasion of fresh water by the four families in this cluster. The highly supported monophyletic marine Euryteidae is the first offshoot followed by the brackish-water, free-living Halicyclopidae and the freshwater, parasitic Lernaeidae. The Cyclopidae fulfilled the colonization of freshwater bodies. The other clade of families comprises 12 monophyletic families recovered by our analysis, including the Pterinopsyllidae (at first offshoot), the Smirnovipinidae sister to the Hemicyclopinidae + Psammocyclopinidae, the Thaumatopsyllidae + Speleoithonidae, an undescribed family sister to the Archinotodelphyidae + Notodelphyidae and the Cyclopinidae sister to the Oithonidae + Cyclopettidae. We propose suborder ranks for each of the four main phylogenetic subdivisions of the Cyclopoida. These are named Cyclopicinida, Ergasilida, Cyclopida and Oithonida after the type genus of the oldest described family in the respective group.

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Copepoda is one of the most ecologically important animal groups on Earth, yet very few genetic resources are available for this Subclass. Here, we present the first whole genome sequence (WGS, acc. UYDY01) and the first mRNA transcriptome assembly (TSA, Acc. GHAJ01) for the tropical cyclopoid copepod species Apocyclops royi Until now, only the 18S small subunit of ribosomal RNA gene and the COI gene has been available from A. royi, and WGS resources was only available from one other cyclopoid copepod species. Overall, the provided resources are the 8th copepod species to have WGS resources available and the 19th copepod species with TSA information available. We analyze the length and GC content of the provided WGS scaffolds as well as the coverage and gene content of both the WGS and the TSA assembly. Finally, we place the resources within the copepod order Cyclopoida as a member of the Apocyclops genus. We estimate the total genome size of A. royi to 450 Mb, with 181 Mb assembled nonrepetitive sequence, 76 Mb assembled repeats and 193 Mb unassembled sequence. The TSA assembly consists of 29,737 genes and an additional 45,756 isoforms. In the WGS and TSA assemblies, >80% and >95% of core genes can be found, though many in fragmented versions. The provided resources will allow researchers to conduct physiological experiments on A. royi, and also increase the possibilities for copepod gene set analysis, as it adds substantially to the copepod datasets available.

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Two species of cyclopoid copepods are recorded in this study. (1) A new species of bomolochid, Orbitacolax brevispinus n. sp. (Crustacea) is described based on adult females collected from the gill filaments and inner surface of the opercula of red barracuda, Sphyraena pinguis Günther (Perciformes: Sphyraenidae), captured in Korean waters. The new species differs from its congeners by the possession of two pairs of spines on the dorsal surface of the cephalothorax located just posterior to the rostrum and a different setal formula on the distal exopodal segments of legs 2-4. (2) A taeniacanthid Cirracanthus inimici (Yamaguti et Yamasu, 1959) (Crustacea) is redescribed based on the specimens collected from the gill filaments and inner surface of the opercula of devil stinger, Inimicus japonicus (Cuvier) (Scorpaeniformes: Synancellidae). This finding is the first record in Korean waters and the first description of male. A checklist of parasitic copepods of the families Bomolochidae Sumpf, 1871 and Taeniacanthidae Wilson, 1911of Korea is also provided.

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A total of 228 sampling stations were visited for benthic fauna during a series of oceanographic cruises in the Gulf of California, west coast of the Baja California Peninsula, and Eastern Central Pacific from year 1991 to 2014. Among others, three fish species of the genus Dibranchus were caught in 28 stations. Of these, D. spongiosa was the most common and abundant. Close inspection of this fish revealed the presence of a new species of parasitic copepod, Chondracanthus dibranchi sp. nov., found in the gill cavity of seven specimens of D. spongiosa. Chondracanthus dibranchi sp. nov. seems to be morphologically related to C. psetti and C. janebennettae. The female of C. janebennettae can be separated from these other two congeners by the general shape of the head and abdomen, by the number of teeth on the mandibular blade, and by the general body shape. Chondracanthus psetti and C. dibranchi sp. nov. share the relative lengths of legs 1 and 2, the relative size and shape of the genito-abdomen, and the conical attenuating lateral processes on the trunk of the female. The females of these two species can be separated by the shape and armature of the antennule, shape of the antenna, the claw of the maxilliped, the rami of leg 1 and 2 and posterior processes, the head region, and by the position of the lateral processes of the trunk. An amendment to Tang's (2007) key to the species of Chondracanthus is proposed.

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A new species of the cyclopinid genus Cyclopicina, C. toyoshioae sp. nov., was collected from the hyperbenthic layer off northern Kyushu Island, Japan; its description is based on two adult female specimens. This is the first record of the genus from the Indo-Pacific region. The new species can be distinguished from its two known congeners in: (1) the relatively short antennules which do not reach the posterior margin of the dorsal cephalothoracic shield; (2) the shape of seminal receptacles; (3) the segmentation and armature of the cephalothoracic appendages; (4) the shape of the basal protrusion between the rami of legs 1-4; (5) the presence of three outer spines on the third exopodal segment of leg 4; and (6) the presence or absence of outer setae on the free exopodal segment of leg 5. The genus Cyclopicina shows a wide but scattered distribution in hyperbenthic layers, from the continental shelves to deep-sea basins, in the northern hemisphere.

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Eutrophication is a process characterized by an increase in the aquatic system productivity, which causes profound changes in the structure of its communities. Owing to the high environmental sensitivity of planktonic species, the study of their communities can indicate the deterioration of the environment. The Jaguari and Jacareí reservoirs are part of the Cantareira System, supplying water to São Paulo inhabitants and that has been affected by several forms of continuous human interference. Here we analyze some properties of the zooplankton community as bioindicators of eutrophication and water quality change. In situ physical and chemical measurements were carried out, water was collected for analysis and quantitative zooplankton samples were taken at eight sites in the two reservoirs, in both seasons, dry and rainy. Species were identified and their numerical abundances and biomasses were determined and used to estimate two biological indices. The overall trophic state and zooplankton structure, the Calanoida/Cyclopoida ratio and the k-dominance curves were associated with the disturbance levels, mainly represented by nutrient river inputs and by water level fluctuations. The Jaguari Reservoir was more eutrophicated than the Jacareí Reservoir, as evidenced by the obtained indices values. The zooplankton community properties used as indicators of the reservoir trophic state were useful monitoring tools.

A eutrofização é um processo caracterizado pelo aumento da produtividade do sistema aquático, o que provoca profundas alterações na estrutura de suas comunidades. Devido è alta sensibilidade ambiental das espécies planctônicas, o estudo de suas comunidades pode indicar a deterioração do ambiente. Os reservatórios Jaguari e Jacareí são parte do Sistema Cantareira, que fornece água para os habitantes de São Paulo e que tem sido afetado por diversas formas de contínua interferência humana. Neste trabalho vamos analisar algumas propriedades da comunidade zooplanctônica como bioindicadoras de eutrofização e alteração da qualidade da água. Foram realizadas medições in situ de variáveis físicas e químicas, amostras de água foram coletadas para análises e amostras quantitativas de zooplâncton foram coletadas em oito localidades compreendendo os dois reservatórios, em duas estações, seca e chuvosa. As espécies foram identificadas e suas abundâncias numéricas e biomassas foram determinadas e utilizadas para estimar dois índices biológicos. O estado trófico e a estrututa do zooplâncton, a relação Calanoida / Cyclopoida e as curvas de k-dominância foram associados com os níveis de perturbação, representada principalmente pela entrada de nutrientes transportados pelo rio e pelas flutuações no nível da água. O Reservatório Jaguari se encontrava mais eutrofizado do que o Reservatório Jacareí, como evidenciado pelos índices obtidos. As propriedades da comunidade zooplanctônica utilizadas como indicadoras do estado trófico dos reservatórios foram úteis como ferramentas de monitoramento.

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This article provides an overview of research on chromatin diminution (CD) in copepods. The phenomenology, mechanisms and biological role of CD are discussed. A model of CD as an alternative means of regulating cell differentiation is presented. While the vast majority of eukaryotes inactivate genes that are no longer needed in development by heterochromatinization, copepods probably use CD for the same purpose. It is assumed that the copepods have exploited CD as a tool for adaptation to changing environmental conditions and as a mechanism for regulating the rate of evolutionary processes.

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A new species of the freshwater cyclopoid copepod genus Metacyclops Kiefer, 1927 is described from a single pond in northern Mexico, within the binational area known as the Chihuahuan Desert. This species belongs to a group of Metacyclops species with a 3443 spine formula of swimming legs. It is morphologically similar to Metacyclops lusitanus Lindberg, 1961 but differs from this and other congeners by having a unique combination of characters, including a caudal rami length/width proportion of 3.5-3.8, a innermost terminal seta slightly longer than the outermost terminal seta, intercoxal sclerites of legs 1-4 naked, a strong apical spine of the second endopodal segment of leg 1 and one row of 6-8 small spinules at the insertion of this spine. The finding of this species represents also the first record of the genus in Mexico and the third in North America, where only two other species, Metacyclops gracilis (Lilljeborg, 1853)and Metacyclops cushae Reid, 1991 have been hitherto reported. This is also the first continental record of a species of Metacyclops from an arid environment in the Americas. This species appears to be endemic to the Chihuahuan Desert, thus emphasizing the high endemicity of this area.

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A new species of the endoparasitic copepod Enterognathus (Cyclopoida, Enterognathidae) is described from a crinoid host in the Seto Inland Sea, western Japan. This is a third species of the genus and its first occurrence in the Pacific Ocean. The new species is distinguished from two previously known congeners by the morphology of the body somites, caudal rami, antennae and legs. Crinoid parasites belonging to Enterognathus and the closely related genus Parenterognathus have a broad distribution from the northeastern Atlantic through the Red Sea to the West Pacific.

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Estudo da biodiversidade de Copepoda Cyclopoida do Estado de São Paulo foi feito no Programa BIOTA/FAPESP, amostrando 207 corpos de água das 22 Unidade de Gerenciamento de Recursos Hídricos (UGRHI). Foram registradas 39 espécies englobando tanto espécies de hábito planctônico como de hábito não planctônico. Destas, 6 espécies constituem registro novo no Estado de São Paulo sendo uma espécie nova, o Thermocyclops iguapensis, espécie restrita na costa Atlântica (Silva & Matsumura-Tundisi 2005a). Foram realizadas também correções de erros de identificação para algumas espécies: as espécies anteriormente identificadas como Mesocyclops kieferi, Mesocyclops brasilianus, e Paracyclops fimbriatus correspondem respectivamente Mesocyclops ogunnus, Mesocyclops meridianus e Paracyclops chiltoni. Estas correções são importantes, pois a correta identificação de uma espécie que pode vir formar a população mais significativa de um ambiente pode servir de indicativo das condições tróficas como verificado por Silva & Matsumura-Tundisi (2002) para relações entre espécies de Cyclopoida e o grau de trofia de reservatórios do médio e baixo Tietê.

The biodiversity of Cyclopoida copepods of São Paulo State was studied during the Program BIOTA/FAPESP. Samples were collected from 207 water bodies of the 22 Units of Management of Water Resources (UGRHI). From the 39 registered species, 6 were new records from São Paulo State. The new species Thermocyclops iguapensis is a species restricted to the Atlantic coast (Silva & Matsumura-Tundisi 2005a). For some species corrections of identification were made: species identified as Mesocyclops kieferi, Mesocyclops brasilianus, and Paracyclops fimbriatus are in reality respectively Mesocyclops ogunnus, Mesocyclops meridianus and Paracyclops chiltoni. These corrections are important since their populations can be indicators of the trophic conditions as verified by Silva & Matsumura-Tundisi (2002) for the reservoirs of the lower and middle Tietê River, São Paulo State.

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Cyclopoida species from the Neotropics are listed and their distributions are commented. The results showed 148 species in the Neotropics, where 83 species were recorded in the northern region (above upon Equator) and 110 species in the southern region (below the Equator). Species richness and endemism are related more to the number of specialists than to environmental complexity. New researcher should be made on to the Copepod taxonomy and the and new skills utilized to solve the main questions on the true distributions and Cyclopoida diversity patterns in the Neotropics.

Foram listadas as espécies de Cyclopoida dos Neotrópicos e sua distribuição comentada. Os resultados mostram um número de 148 espécies, sendo que 83 espécies registradas na Região Norte (acima da linha do Equador) e 110 na Região Sul (abaixo da linha do Equador). A riqueza de espécies e o endemismo estiveram relacionados mais com o número de especialistas do que com a complexidade ambiental. Novos especialistas devem ser formados em taxonomia de Copepoda e utilizar novas ferramentas para resolver as questões sobre a real distribuição e os padrões de diversidade dos Copepoda Cyclopoida nos Neotrópicos.