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BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Drugs sold on cryptomarkets are thought to have lower levels of adulteration and higher strength compared with those sourced off-line. The present study aimed to determine whether cryptomarket and off-line-sourced 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) differed in adulteration and strength. DESIGN AND SETTING: A between-groups design was used to compare cryptomarket versus off-line-sourced drugs. Regression analyses controlling for year and service were conducted. Drug-checking services were conducted in Spain (Energy Control) and the Netherlands (Drugs Information and Monitoring System). CASES: The cases comprised drug samples that underwent drug checking between 2016 and 2021 and were expected to contain MDMA (tablets; n = 36 065; powder: n = 6179), cocaine (n = 11 419), amphetamine (n = 6823), methamphetamine (n = 293) and LSD (n = 1817). MEASUREMENTS: Drugs were measured for (1) matching the advertised substance (i.e. containing any amount of the expected substance); (2) strength; (3) presence of adulteration; and (4) number of adulterants. FINDINGS: The expected drug was more likely to be identified when sourced from cryptomarkets versus off-line for MDMA tablets [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.10, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.28-3.43], MDMA powder (AOR = 2.64, CI = 1.55-4.51), cocaine (AOR = 3.65, CI = 1.98-6.71) and LSD (AOR = 1.75, CI = 1.13-2.72). Cryptomarket-sourced MDMA powder (ß = 0.03, P = 0.012), cocaine (ß = 0.08, P < 0.001) and methamphetamine (ß = 0.15, P = 0.028) were statistically significantly higher in strength than substances from off-line sources. Conversely, MDMA tablets (ß = -0.01, P = 0.043) and amphetamine (ß = -0.07, P < 0.001) from cryptomarkets were statistically significantly lower in strength than from off-line sources. MDMA powder (AOR = 0.53, CI = 0.33-0.86) and cocaine (AOR = 0.66, CI = 0.55-0.79) were statistically significantly less likely to be adulterated if sourced from cryptomarkets. However, amphetamine (AOR = 1.54, CI = 1.25-1.90) and LSD (AOR = 1.31, CI = 1.00-1.71) were found to be more likely to be adulterated when purchased from cryptomarkets. Cocaine from cryptomarkets exhibited fewer adulterants (incidence rate ratio = 0.71, CI = 0.60-0.85). CONCLUSION: The relationship between on-line drug market-places and substance quality varies depending on both the specific substance and the dynamics of the cryptomarket.
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From the beginnings of Silk Road in 2011, anonymous online marketplaces have continued to grow despite the best efforts of law enforcement. While these ever-present marketplaces remain flooded with illicit drugs and related paraphernalia, the sale and distribution of fraudulent identity documents remains a persistent problem, with these items consistently appearing for sale on both the open and dark web. While fraudulent Australian documents are some of the most popular products for sale, there is still much that is unknown about the Australian criminal market and its place within anonymous online marketplaces. Given the success of previous research in understanding the illicit drug trade through examining these marketplaces, this work examines two markets to gain an understanding of where Australian document fraud sits within this digital ecosystem. Two anonymous online marketplaces were crawled across 2020 and 2021, White House Market (WHM), and Empire Market. This data was extracted and examined to identify trends within both the international online market and the online market specifically for Australian documents, both of which have been relatively underexplored in the online space. To help illuminate the features of the market, the types of documents for sale, supply and demand trends, and trafficking flows along with vendor-related trends (e.g. product diversification and presence across markets) were examined. Each market was examined individually and then, where possible, comparisons were drawn to gain a more holistic understanding of the online fraudulent document market, with a specific focus on Australian products. Results indicate that, while the fraudulent document portion of the market is small, it is diverse, with numerous different identity-related products for sale, the most common being driver's licences from the United States (U.S.) and Australia, with digital documents dominating the whole marketplace. Overall, the most popular U.S. products were those that could be used to facilitate identity fraud, with the most popular Australian products being driver's licences and ID packs, likely linked to the presence of the 100-point identity check system used in Australia. This study demonstrates that anonymous online marketplaces have thus far been under-utilised in the study of the fraudulent document market, and that to properly understand the illicit market for fraudulent documents and personal information both the online and physical sides of the market should be considered. This information, if properly utilised, can improve the current understanding of this persistent criminal environment, building on previous research and assisting policymakers in making informed decisions.
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INTRODUCTION: Drug use and trading are typically social activities; however, supply through cryptomarkets can occur without any in-person social contact. People who use drugs alone may be at higher risk of experiencing harms, for example, due to lack of others who may call for emergency assistance. Alternatively, cryptomarkets may be a source of harm reduction information and drugs with better-known content and dose, potentially reducing the risk of adverse events. This study examines relationships between cryptomarket use, drug-using social networks and adverse drug events for MDMA, cocaine and LSD. METHOD: A subsample of 23,053 respondents from over 70 countries was collected in the 2018 Global Drug Survey. People who reported using MDMA, cocaine or LSD were asked about using cryptomarkets to purchase these drugs; any adverse drug events requiring medical treatment (combining seeking treatment and should have sought treatment but did not); and social networks who they had used the specific drug with. All measures referred to the last 12 months, hereon referred to as 'recent'. Binary logistic regressions examined relationships between cryptomarket use, drug-using social networks, and adverse drug events, controlling for age, gender, and frequency of drug use. RESULTS: Adverse events from any drug type were low (5.2%) and for each drug; MDMA (3.5%); cocaine (3.3%); and LSD (3.5%). After controlling for covariates, recent cryptomarket use was associated with increased likelihood of having no drug-using network for each drug type. People who recently used cryptomarkets were more likely to report adverse cocaine (AOR = 1.70 (1.22-2.37)) and LSD (AOR = 1.58 (1.12-2.09)) events. For those reporting a network size >1, network characteristics did not differ with recent cryptomarket use; however, those reporting recent cryptomarket use were more likely to report adverse LSD events (AOR = 1.86 (0.99-3.51)). CONCLUSION: People who reported purchasing drugs from cryptomarkets more commonly reported having no drug-using network, and cryptomarket purchase was associated with reported adverse events. Our results support the notion that cryptomarket use increases drug-related harm, but further disentanglement of multiple complex mechanisms is needed in future research.
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Cocaína , Tráfico de Drogas , Efectos Colaterales y Reacciones Adversas Relacionados con Medicamentos , Drogas Ilícitas , N-Metil-3,4-metilenodioxianfetamina , Trastornos Relacionados con Sustancias , Humanos , Drogas Ilícitas/efectos adversos , Estudios Transversales , Comercio , Trastornos Relacionados con Sustancias/epidemiología , Red Social , Efectos Colaterales y Reacciones Adversas Relacionados con Medicamentos/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
In recent years, the online sale of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), a Southeast Asian plant with both medicinal and psychoactive properties, has raised health concerns mainly due to the uncontrolled diffusion of adulterated kratom-related products. This exploratory study provides, for the first time, a snapshot of the availability of kratom products on the darknet which has been further validated by data searches on the surface web. A total of 231 listings of kratom across 23 darknet marketplaces were identified between March 2020 and October 2021. Among these, 40 were found actively sold across five markets by thirteen vendors. Listed items were mainly advertised as "safe" substitutes for medicinal products for the self-management of pain and other health conditions and offered in various forms (e.g., dry leaf powder, pills, capsules). Purchases were made using cryptocurrencies, with some vendors offering Pretty Good Privacy, and were shipped from Europe, Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Goods sold by the same sellers also included illicit drugs and fraud-related products. Our study discovered a previously unknown diffusion of kratom products on the darknet mainly for self-treating a variety of medical conditions, suggesting the need for further research and immediate interventions to safeguard the well-being and health of kratom consumers.
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INTRODUCTION: There is concern around non-prescribed benzodiazepine use, particularly with increasing detections of counterfeit products containing high-risk novel compounds. The aims of this study were to investigate how and which non-prescribed benzodiazepines are being sourced; forms, appearance and packaging; and awareness of risks associated with non-prescribed benzodiazepines. METHODS: Data were collected from a sample of Australians who inject drugs or use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants on a monthly or more frequent basis, and who reported past 6-month use of non-prescribed benzodiazepines (n = 235 and n = 250, respectively). Data were collected on source, diversion from a known/trusted prescription, product name and aesthetic characteristics for the last non-prescribed benzodiazepine obtained. RESULTS: Amongst participants who injected drugs, 71% reported that their last non-prescribed benzodiazepines were diverted from a known/trusted prescription, compared to 59% of participants who used ecstasy/other stimulants. Sourcing via cryptomarkets was rare. Across both samples, the majority reported last obtaining substances sold/marketed as diazepam or alprazolam. Participants sourcing via non-diverted means were twice as likely to obtain alprazolam. Known sourcing of novel compounds was rare. Amongst participants who used ecstasy/other stimulants, 36% reported confidence in the content/dose of non-prescribed benzodiazepines even when the source is unknown. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Most participants obtained substances sold as classic/registered benzodiazepines, mostly via diverted prescriptions, with a substantial minority potentially unaware of counterfeits circulating. While diverted use undeniably presents risks, tightening of prescriptions in Australia could inadvertently lead to greater supply of novel benzodiazepines as seen internationally, reinforcing prioritisation of demand and harm reduction strategies.
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Benzodiazepinas , Sustancias Controladas , Medicamentos Falsificados , Drogas Ilícitas , Mercadotecnía , Daño del Paciente , Conocimiento de la Medicación por el Paciente , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Adulto Joven , Alprazolam/provisión & distribución , Australia , Benzodiazepinas/economía , Benzodiazepinas/normas , Benzodiazepinas/provisión & distribución , Seguridad Química , Seguridad de Productos para el Consumidor , Sustancias Controladas/economía , Sustancias Controladas/normas , Sustancias Controladas/provisión & distribución , Medicamentos Falsificados/economía , Medicamentos Falsificados/provisión & distribución , Diazepam/provisión & distribución , Abuso de Medicamentos/prevención & control , Abuso de Medicamentos/estadística & datos numéricos , Embalaje de Medicamentos , Medicamentos Genéricos/química , Medicamentos Genéricos/normas , Medicamentos Genéricos/provisión & distribución , Drogas Ilícitas/química , Drogas Ilícitas/normas , Drogas Ilícitas/provisión & distribución , Entrevistas como Asunto , Mercadotecnía/estadística & datos numéricos , N-Metil-3,4-metilenodioxianfetamina , Daño del Paciente/prevención & control , Daño del Paciente/estadística & datos numéricos , Conocimiento de la Medicación por el Paciente/estadística & datos numéricos , Programas de Monitoreo de Medicamentos Recetados , Riesgo , Autoinforme , IncertidumbreRESUMEN
This research uses longitudinal data to investigate if illegal online drug purchases changed over time during the COVID-19 pandemic, and if these changes were primarily driven by users adjusting to market conditions or by a heightened level of pandemic-induced strain that could drive a greater demand for drugs. Data were collected across four waves between fall 2019 and fall 2021 using an online survey. Data showed an increase in reported online drug purchases across the waves, but the online drug purchases remained consistent for the first year of the pandemic, but increased by approximately 44% between the fall 2020 and fall 2021 when over 13 percent of the sample admitted to buying illegal drugs online. Strain was also related to buying illegal drugs online as those respondents who made illegal online purchased had an average of 5.2 strain events in the past 12 months compared to only 2.4 events among those who did not report purchasing illegal drugs online. However, the influence of strain on online purchases remained consistent across time. These results suggest that the increase in online drug purchases was primarily driven by users adapting to changing market conditions rather than the cumulative strains associated with the pandemic producing a greater effect on purchases. Policy implications are also discussed.
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Purpose of Review: Darknet-hosted drug markets ('cryptomarkets') are an established model of illicit drug distribution which makes use of specialised online hosting and payment systems to link buyers and sellers remotely. Cryptomarkets appear to professionalise, gentrify and integrate drug markets. Therefore, they can be hypothesised to have effects on drug availability by allowing purchases by people who use drugs (PWUD) outside of face-to-face networks that have typified drug distribution. They may attract new buyers and may change use patterns by offering a greater range of higher-potency drugs. This paper examines the research on cryptomarkets' potential impacts on drug availability. Recent Findings: 1. Cryptomarkets tend to address established PWUD who mainly already have access to existing distribution systems. Their greatest impact may be on what is available and the quantities available, and not the overall ease of access.2. Cryptomarkets may provide new data sources which can inform our understanding of drug markets.3. Cryptomarkets may define PWUD as consumers and contribute to reshaping their identities around principles of self-directed, informed consumption.4. In terms of size, cryptomarkets are currently smaller than other modes of digital drug distribution such as through social media and messaging apps and should be seen as a specialist subset of that genre.5. Users of cryptomarkets often integrate drug-purchase and consumption repertoires across multiple sites, online and offline, and cryptomarkets can be one element. Summary: The cryptomarkets are of interest partly because they alter the practical calculus around drug diffusion and partly because they contribute to the formation of digitally enabled drug use which emphasises a consumer relationship between buyer and seller.
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Background: The aim of this study was to analyze how Swedish courts describe persons sentenced for purchasing illicit drugs online. Methods: Qualitative analysis of naturally occurring data through 201 sentences that included 248 individuals sentenced for having purchased drugs online between January 1 2010 and January 1 2020. Results: The analysis resulted in the construction of four ideal types regarding the described characteristics of the sentenced persons; the ordinary person, the recreational user, the addict and the criminal. The courts operate with a notable dichotomy between traditional drug markets and online drug markets, that can be understood in relation to descriptions of Bourdieusian capital forms, specifically street capital and digital capital. Conclusion: Descriptions relating to street capital were of larger interest to the courts compared to digital capital, although there were examples of when the courts argued that uses of digital capital should be viewed as an aggravating circumstance. The courts largely held a dichotomous view of online and offline drug markets that focus on street-based criminality, which may have implications for how emerging digital drug markets are responded to by drug law enforcement and judicial systems.
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BACKGROUND: The pricing of illicit drugs is typically approached within the risks and prices framework. Recent sociological and economic studies of prices in online drug markets have stressed the centrality of reputation for price formation. In this paper, we propose an account of price formation that is based on the risks and prices framework, but also incorporates internal social organization to explain price variation. We assess the model empirically, and extend the current empirical literature by including payment methods and informal ranking as influences on drug pricing. METHODS: We apply our model to estimate the prices of cannabis, cocaine, and heroin in two online drug markets, cryptomarkets (n = 92.246). Using multilevel linear regression, we assess the influence of product qualities, reputation, payment methods, and informal ranking on price formation. RESULTS: We observe extensive quantity discounts varying across substances and countries, and find premia and discounts associated with product qualities. We find evidence of payment method price adjustment, but contrary to expectation we observe conflicting evidence concerning reputation and status. We assess the robustness of our findings concerning reputation by comparing our model to previous approaches and alternative specifications. CONCLUSION: We contribute to an emerging economic sociological approach to the study illicit markets by developing an account of price formation that incorporates cybercrime scholarship and the risks and prices framework. We find that prices in online drug markets reflect both external institutional constraint and internal social processes that reduce uncertainty.
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Comercio , Drogas Ilícitas , Costos y Análisis de Costo , Costos de los Medicamentos , Heroína , Humanos , IncertidumbreRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Novel synthetic opioids are fueling the overdose deaths epidemic in North America.Recently, non-fentanyl novel synthetic opioids have emerged in forensic toxicological results. Cryptomarkets have become important platforms of distribution for illicit substances. This article presents the data concerning the availability trends of novel non-fentanyl synthetic opioids listed on one cryptomarket. METHODS: Listings from the EmpireMarket cryptomarket "Opiates" section were collected between June 2020 and August 2020. Collected data were processed using eDarkTrends Named Entity Recognition algorithm to identify novel synthetic opioids, and to analyze their availability trends in terms of frequency of listings, available average weights, average prices, quantity sold, and geographic indicators of shipment origin and destination information. RESULTS: 35,196 opioid-related listings were collected through 12 crawling sessions. 17 nonfentanyl novel synthetic opioids were identified in 2.9 % of the collected listings for an average of 9.2 kg of substance available at each data point. 587 items advertised as non-fentanyl novel synthetic opioids were sold on EmpireMarket for a total weight of between 858 g and 2.7 kg during the study period. 45.5 % of these listings were advertised as shipped from China. CONCLUSIONS: Fourteen of the 17 non-fentanyl novel synthetic opioids were identified for the first time on one large cryptomarket suggesting a shift in terms of novel non-fentanyl synthetic opioids availability. This increased heterogeneity of available novel synthetic opioids could reduce the efficiency of existing overdose prevention strategies. Identification of new opioids underpins the value of cryptomarket data for early warning systems of emerging substance use trends.
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Sobredosis de Droga , Trastornos Relacionados con Sustancias , Analgésicos Opioides/uso terapéutico , Sobredosis de Droga/tratamiento farmacológico , Sobredosis de Droga/epidemiología , Fentanilo/uso terapéutico , Heroína/uso terapéutico , Humanos , Trastornos Relacionados con Sustancias/tratamiento farmacológicoRESUMEN
The Tor anonymity network allows users to protect their privacy and circumvent censorship restrictions but also shields those distributing child abuse content, selling or buying illicit drugs, or sharing malware online. Using data collected from Tor entry nodes, we provide an estimation of the proportion of Tor network users that likely employ the network in putatively good or bad ways. Overall, on an average country/day, â¼6.7% of Tor network users connect to Onion/Hidden Services that are disproportionately used for illicit purposes. We also show that the likely balance of beneficial and malicious use of Tor is unevenly spread globally and systematically varies based upon a country's political conditions. In particular, using Freedom House's coding and terminological classifications, the proportion of often illicit Onion/Hidden Services use is more prevalent (â¼7.8%) in "free" countries than in either "partially free" (â¼6.7%) or "not free" regimes (â¼4.8%).
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BACKGROUND: The United States is facing a "triple wave" epidemic fueled by novel synthetic opioids. Cryptomarkets, anonymous marketplaces located on the deep web, play an increasingly important role in the distribution of illicit substances. This article presents the data collected and processed by the eDarkTrends platform concerning the availability trends of novel synthetic opioids listed on one cryptomarket. METHODS: Listings from the DreamMarket cryptomarket "Opioids" and "Research Chemicals" sections were collected between March 2018 and January 2019. Collected data were processed using eDarkTrends Named Entity Recognition algorithm to identify opioid drugs, and to analyze their availability trends in terms of frequency of listings, available average weights, average prices, and geographic indicators of shipment origin and destination information. RESULTS: 95,011 opioid-related listings were collected through 26 crawling sessions. 33 novel synthetic opioids were identified in 3.3 % of the collected listings. 44.7 % of these listings advertised fentanyl (pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical) or fentanyl analogs for an average of 2.8 kgs per crawl. "Synthetic heroin" accounted for 33.2 % of novel synthetic opioid listings for an average 1.1 kgs per crawl with 97.7 % of listings advertised as shipped from Canada. Other novel synthetic opioids (e.g., U-47,700, AP-237) represented 22 % of these listings for an average of 6.1 kgs per crawl with 97.2 % of listings advertised as shipped from China. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate consistent availability of a wide variety of novel synthetic opioids both in retail and wholesale-level amounts. Identification of new substances highlights the value of cryptomarket data for early warning systems of emerging substance use trends.
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BACKGROUND: Buyers and sellers of illegal drugs in cryptomarkets have been found to overcome trust issues created by anonymity and the lack of legal protection with the help of reputation systems. Cryptomarkets rarely operate for longer than a year before closing or getting shut down due to external shocks, such as law enforcement operations. This results in large flows of users migrating between market platforms. An important question in order to better understand why cryptomarkets recover quickly after external shocks is: to what extent can reputation be carried over between different markets? This problem is non-trivial given the anonymity of cryptomarket users and the fact that reputation is tied to a user's online identity. Here we analyze conditions under which sellers choose to migrate with the same identity and whether reputation history from previous cryptomarkets yields benefits in new contexts. METHODS: We analyze sellers' migration in three cryptomarkets (Abraxas, Agora and AlphaBay) and follow their reputation history by linking user accounts between marketplaces using the Grams database. We use longitudinal multi-level regression models to compare market success of migrant and non-migrant sellers. In total, the data contains more than 7,500 seller account and 2.5 million buyers' reputational feedback messages over a period of 3 years. FINDINGS: It is predominantly the successful sellers with a large number of sales and high reputation who choose to migrate and maintain their identity using cryptographic methods after market closures. We find that reputation history from previous markets creates a competitive advantage to migrant sellers compared to market entrants. CONCLUSION: Reputation transferability embeds cryptomarket users beyond a single market platform, which incentivizes cooperative behavior. The results also suggest that reputation transferability might contribute to a quick recovery of online drug trade after shutdowns and accumulation of market share in the hands of a small fraction of successful sellers.
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Tráfico de Drogas , Drogas Ilícitas , Comercio , Humanos , Internet , Aplicación de la Ley , ConfianzaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Cannabis is one of the most commonly sold drugs on cryptomarkets. Because of the anonymity-granting functions of Tor, no study has traced the within-country effect of the Dark Web on cannabis consumption patterns. This article uses a big data research design to examine the association between revealed interest in the Dark Web and self-reported cannabis use within US states from 2011 when Silk Road launched to 2015 when Operation Onymous shuttered nine markets. METHODS: This study uses mixed effects ordinary least squared regressions to analyze U.S. state/year panel data, using robust standard errors to correct for heteroscedasticity. Marginal effect plots illustrate substantive effects. The dataset consists of state-level variables drawn from the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), the American Community Survey (ACS), the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, the Correlates of State Policy Project, and the Bureau of Justice Statistics Justice Expenditure and Employment Extracts. Data for the Dark Web interest measure are drawn from Google Trends. The proxy for Dark Web interest is an index of eight Dark Web related search queries. RESULTS: The regression analysis indicates that Dark Web interest in US states positively correlates with cannabis consumption rates overall and among older adults (26+), but not youth (12-17) or younger adults (18-25). Additionally, Dark Web interest is positively associated with more frequent cannabis usage rates (i.e. use in the past month, excluding first time use) both overall and among older adults, but not among youth or younger adults. Dark Web interest does not correlate with casual use (i.e. use in the last year, excluding use in the past month) for any age bracket. Interacting Dark Web interest with state-level legalization regimes indicates that the association between Dark Web interest and cannabis consumption in the past year is no different in medically legalized states and amplified in states with recreational legalization. Lastly, the Dark Web interest term does not correlate with first time cannabis either overall or for any age category. CONCLUSIONS: Interest in the Dark Web is associated with increased cannabis use in U.S. states from 2011-2015, but the effect is concentrated in states with more frequent cannabis users, older users, and in states with recreational legalization of cannabis.
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Cannabis , Adolescente , Anciano , Macrodatos , Gastos en Salud , Humanos , Proyectos de Investigación , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Estados Unidos/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Why aren't cryptomarkets more widely used? Researchers from a wide array of fields have attempted to answer this question by studying the size of drug cryptomarkets, the substances trafficked, and their structure. In this paper we address the potential acceptance of drug cryptomarkets by studying their perceived ease of use. METHODS: This paper draws on observational data collected over 350 h of unstructured observation during an ethnographic study conducted in April-September 2016 of the two most prominent drug cryptomarkets at the time, in addition to seven face-to-face semi-structured qualitative interviews. ANALYSIS: Use of cryptomarkets relies on specialised knowledge. The administrators of the cryptomarkets do not play a publicly visible role in facilitating or easing cryptomarket use while simultaneously expecting cryptomarket users to exhibit self-reliance. We argue that the current levels of complexity and obfuscation constructed in the cryptomarket environment act as a barrier to the widespread acceptance of this technology. DISCUSSION: Through studying cryptomarkets' potential for widespread use we have shed light on current barriers to their growth requirement of specialised knowledge in order to use cryptomarkets and no public efforts to bridge the knowledge gap on behalf of cryptomarket administrators. As cryptomarkets continue to develop the ease of use of these platforms are bound to change, and with them the likelihood that cryptomarket usage may increase.
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Comercio/estadística & datos numéricos , Tráfico de Drogas/estadística & datos numéricos , Drogas Ilícitas/provisión & distribución , Internet , Adulto , Antropología Cultural , Comercio/economía , Tráfico de Drogas/economía , Consumidores de Drogas , Femenino , Humanos , Drogas Ilícitas/economía , Entrevistas como Asunto , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Nonmedical prescription psychiatric drug use (NMPDU) is an increasing global health problem, with recent concern focusing on darknet cryptomarkets as sources of procurement. There is a shortage of evidence regarding comparative worldwide NMPDU trends, due in part to data collection difficulties. This problem is particularly marked for non-opioid drugs, particularly those psychiatric drugs which act on the central nervous system (CNS) and have high misuse potential and are associated with high levels of dependency and fatal overdose. This paper therefore has two goals: 1) to report on the kinds of psychiatric prescription drugs available on cryptomarkets, and 2) to use this data to uncover temporal and geographical trends in sales of these products, potentially informing policy regarding NMPDU more generally. METHOD: Digital trace data collected from 31 cryptomarkets in operation between September 2013 and July 2016 was analysed by country of origin descriptively and for trends in the sales for 7 psychiatric drug groupings, based on their main indication or intended use in psychiatric practice. RESULTS: Sedatives (such as diazepam and alprazolam) and CNS stimulants (mainly Adderall, modafinil and methylphenidate) had the greatest share of sales, but usage and trends varied by location. The UK has high and rising levels of sedative sales, whilst the USA has the greatest stimulant sales and increasing sedative rates. Sales of drugs used in the treatment of opioid dependency are also substantial in the USA. The picture is less clear in mainland Europe with high sales levels reported in unexpected Central and Northern European countries. There is evidence of a move towards the more potent sedative alprazolam - already implicated as a source of problematic NMPDU in the USA - in Australia and the UK. Sales of drugs such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, mood stabilisers and antidementia drugs - all drugs with limited abuse potential - were negligible, indicating minimal levels of online cryptomarket procurement for self-medicating mental health problems. CONCLUSION: Predominantly, psychiatric drugs with potent sedative, stimulant or euphoriant effects are sold on cryptomarkets and this varies by country. With some caveats regarding the limitations of cryptomarket digital trace data taken into account, the study of trends of these products sold online over time may offer a novel and increasingly important window onto wider drug purchasing habits.
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Comercio/estadística & datos numéricos , Tráfico de Drogas/estadística & datos numéricos , Internet , Mal Uso de Medicamentos de Venta con Receta/estadística & datos numéricos , Psicotrópicos/provisión & distribución , Tráfico de Drogas/economía , Humanos , Mal Uso de Medicamentos de Venta con Receta/economía , Medicamentos bajo Prescripción/economía , Medicamentos bajo Prescripción/provisión & distribución , Psicotrópicos/economía , Trastornos Relacionados con Sustancias/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
As America's opioid crisis has become an "epidemic of epidemics," Ohio has been identified as one of the high burden states regarding fentanyl-related overdose mortality. This study aims to examine changes in the availability of fentanyl, fentanyl analogs, and other non-pharmaceutical opioids on cryptomarkets and assess relationship with the trends in unintentional overdoses in Ohio to provide timely information for epidemiologic surveillance. Cryptomarket data were collected at two distinct periods of time: (1) Agora data covered June 2014-September 2015 and were obtained from Grams archive; (2) Dream Market data from March-April 2018 were extracted using a dedicated crawler. A Named Entity Recognition algorithm was developed to identify and categorize the type of fentanyl and other synthetic opioids advertised on cryptomarkets. Time-lagged correlations were used to assess the relationship between the fentanyl, fentanyl analog and other synthetic opioid-related ads from cryptomarkets and overdose data from the Cincinnati Fire Department Emergency Responses and Montgomery County Coroner's Office. Analysis from the cryptomarket data reveals increases in fentanyl-like drugs and changes in the types of fentanyl analogues and other synthetic opioids advertised in 2015 and 2018 with potent substances like carfentanil available during the second period. The time-lagged correlation was the largest when comparing Agora data to Cincinnati Emergency Responses 1 month later 0.84 (95% CI 0.45, 0.96). The time-lagged correlation between Agora data and Montgomery County drug overdoses was the largest when comparing synthetic opioid-related Agora ads to Montgomery County overdose deaths 7 months later 0.78 (95% CI 0.47, 0.92). Further investigations are required to establish the relationship between cryptomarket availability and unintentional overdose trends related to specific fentanyl analogs and/or other illicit synthetic opioids.
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BACKGROUND: The use of new technology is frequently harnessed by drug suppliers to both increase profits and reduce risk. While a growing body of research has investigated drug sales through online pharmacies and cryptomarkets, despite growing media interest, no published research exists on how smartphone-enabled social media and messaging applications ('apps') are utilised in the drug economy. This study analyses the ways such apps (e.g. Snapchat, Instagram and WhatsApp) are utilised to supply and access drugs. METHODS: Three data collection methods were employed: an international online survey of 358 drug users that had either used or considered using apps to access drugs; 'rapid' interviews (n = 20) with a similar population; and in-depth interviews (n = 27). Key issues explored were the perceived benefits and risks associated with sourcing drugs through apps, with specific attention paid to novel supply and purchasing practices. RESULTS: Apps appear to provide a quick, convenient method for connecting buyer and seller. They were often viewed as a valuable intermediary option between cryptomarkets and street dealing, providing 'secure' features and the opportunity to preview product without the requirement for technical expertise. Apps are used in a range of novel and diverse ways, including as social networking spaces in which drugs are advertised, and as encrypted messaging services for communicating with known sellers and arranging transactions. Key anxieties related to potential for exposure to law enforcement and legitimacy of substances. CONCLUSION: Though 'social supply' through friends is still typically preferred and there is a degree of wariness toward app-mediated supply, our data indicate that apps are fast becoming a viable option for accessing drugs. Apps can provide an easily accessible platform that connects buyers with commercial drug suppliers and substances that may otherwise remain elusive. Potential harms can be reduced through the provision of information which demystify common-sense assumptions that apps are secure and that this 'visual' drug economy promotes safer purchasing practices.
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Comercio/estadística & datos numéricos , Tráfico de Drogas/estadística & datos numéricos , Drogas Ilícitas , Medios de Comunicación Sociales , Comportamiento del Consumidor , Internet , Teléfono Inteligente , Red SocialRESUMEN
Background Crackdowns on urban sites with concentrated criminal activity are sometimes followed by geographical relocation of crime. Is this also the case in cyberspace, where illegal websites and online networks can be wiped clean, but also quickly rebuilt and replaced on new servers and URLs? Methods I address this question in three steps. First, I measure MDMA trade in a large digital market for drugs, before and after the arrest of a leading MDMA seller in the same market. Second, I count the number of available digital drug markets and vendor shops in the period February 2014-June 2018, to see if websites closed by police were replaced by new ones. Third, I track the digital movement and trading activities of individual drug sellers, before and after law enforcement shut down two large markets. Results After police arrested a leading MDMA seller, other MDMA sellers filled most - but not all - of the gap. A major law enforcement crackdown reduced the number of available markets, but new ones were created, and market counts eventually surpassed the previous peak. When law enforcement shut down two big markets, many of the sellers relocated to other e-commerce sites and continued high-earning operations there. Conclusion Arrests and market closures redirect digital drug trade to other sellers and markets. Hot spot policing in cyberspace might produce temporary results, but is arguably ineffective in the long run, as actors use information and communication technology's unique capacities to reorganize.
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Crimen , Tráfico de Drogas/economía , Tráfico de Drogas/estadística & datos numéricos , Drogas Ilícitas/economía , Comercio/tendencias , Tráfico de Drogas/tendencias , Humanos , Drogas Ilícitas/provisión & distribución , Internet/economía , Aplicación de la LeyRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: An ethnographic analysis of drug-centred cryptomarket community and exchange, this article explores the embedded values around drug distribution and consumption within this setting. Drawing on our interviews with cryptomarket users, we analyze the ways in which users claim the cryptomarket as a space of morality, empathy, trust, reciprocity, knowledge transfer, harm reduction and self-limitation. The anthropological concept of the morality of exchange is central to our theoretical approach. METHODS: Between December 2014 and July 2017, nine interviews were undertaken with users of drug cryptomarkets. These were conducted in person, using Skype video calling, and using the encrypted 'self-erasing' chat app Wickr. The researchers also used overt non-participant observation (NPO) within the cryptomarket forum. This two-pronged approach - interviews and spending time within the community via NPO - enabled a thick description style of ethnographic analysis. RESULTS: Our research reveals online drug markets less as perfect markets (working to rules of supply and demand) and more as constructive communities of interest that perform and negotiate drug use and supply. We found that participation within these interest communities had practical impact such as changing the type of drug that users consume and the ways in which they participate in street drug supply. Significantly, these values and actions mediate the interface between online action and 'meatspace' (the offline world) and reinforce that the motivations and processes of internet activity are just as 'real' as offline action. CONCLUSION: We redefine the illicit drug focused cryptomarket as a place of exchange, mediation and reciprocity. Real-time knowledge transfer with the aim of harm reduction is one example of the impact of cryptomarket interaction. We caution that this is not a space of kinship and affinity: it is not without its scams, hackers and threats. It is, however, much more than a 'drug marketplace' and to understand how users themselves conceptualise this space is fruitful for any understanding of cryptomarkets. Cryptomarket exchange is a form of social action that is not restricted to its economic value for participants.