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PURPOSE: Assess the refractive states of donkeys and goats. METHODS: Forty-two donkeys and 28 goats were enrolled. The mean ± SD ages were 7.68 ± 7.33 years for donkeys and 4.26 ± 2.33 years for goats. Seven donkeys and one goat were <6 months old. Retinoscopy was performed in alert animals, following cycloplegia in goats but not in donkeys. Normality was determined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The two primary meridians and two eyes were compared using Pearson's correlation and paired Student's t-tests. The association between refractive states and age was examined using one-way ANOVA in donkeys and a paired Student's t-test in goats. One-sample t-tests were conducted to assess if the refractive error distributions were significantly different from "0". RESULTS: The mean ± SD spherical equivalent (SE) refractive errors of the right and left donkey eyes were -0.80 ± 1.03 D and -0.35 ± 0.95 D, respectively. The majority (86%) of the donkeys had an astigmatic refraction and eight (19%) had anisometropia. The mean SE refractive errors of the right and left goat eyes were -0.15 ± 1.1 D and -0.18 ± 1.2 D, respectively. The majority (54%) of the goat eyes had an astigmatic refraction and five (18%) had anisometropia. The right and left eye SE refractive errors were positively correlated in both species (both p = .9). Age was not correlated with refractive error in both donkeys (p = .09) and goats (p = .6). CONCLUSIONS: Both goats and donkeys are emmetropic.

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There is consensus that the quality of the human-animal relationship (HAR) is relevant to guarantee appropriate levels of animal welfare. Given the impact that HAR may have on both goats and human beings, the aim of the present review is to elucidate: (1) how humans and goats communicate; (2) which are the factors affecting human-goat interactions; (3) how we can measure the quality of this relationship. The systematic review led to the selection of 58 relevant articles. Effective human-goat communication takes place by means of visual, tactile and auditory stimuli and, to a less extent, via olfactory and gustative stimuli. Goats have well-developed socio-cognitive abilities and rely on humans to get relevant information. A deep knowledge of goats' communication means and socio-cognitive abilities may greatly help improving the human-goat relationship. Management practices (e.g., rearing methods, amount and quality of interactions), as well as genetic selection for suitable individual traits, may contribute to improving HAR. Several measures to assess the quality of HAR have been validated, including avoidance in the pen and at the feeding rack and latency to first contact. Finally, farmers' attitudes and empathy with goats, as well as their motivation to work with animals, should be improved through appropriate training.

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Introdução: a oxidação em sistemas biológicos está relacionada ao desenvolvimento de patologias em humanos. A ingestão de alimentos ricos em compostos químicos que exercem atividade antioxidante contribui para a prevenção e redução dos efeitos deletérios dos radicais livres formados no organismo. Peptídeos derivados das caseínas têm mostrado um elevado potencial como agentes antioxidantes. Objetivos: neste sentido, o presente estudo avaliou a atividade antioxidante de hidrolisados derivados de caseínas de leites das espécies bubalina, bovina e caprina, obtidos pela ação de diferentes proteases. Metodologia: inicialmente, as caseínas foram isoladas dos demais componentes do leite, depois foram submetidas ao processo de proteólise pelas enzimas bromelina, papaína, tripsina e neutrase, individualmente. A atividade antioxidante dos hidrolisados foi avaliada, através da capacidade de eliminação dos radicais: hidroxila (OH­Ë™), superóxido (O2­Ë™), 2,2 difenil-1-picrilhidrazil (DPPH˙), 2,2'azinobis-(3-ácido etilbenzotiazolino-6-sulfônico (ABTS˙), e quelante dos íons metálicos cobre (Cu2+) e ferro (Fe2+). Resultados: os resultados mostraram que a caseína bovina apresentou o menor (35,54%) grau de hidrólise e a caseína bubalina apresentou o maior (85,64%) grau de hidrólise pela ação da neutrase e bromelina após 480 minutos, respectivamente. O potencial para o sequestro dos radicais hidroxila variou entre 0 e 100%, superóxido superior a 80%, ABTS superior a 85%, DPPH entre 20 e 95% habilidade de quelar ferro entre 10 e 100% e cobre entre 14 e 80%. Conclusão: assim, a hidrólise das caseínas do leite bubalino, bovino e caprino foram capazes de produzir hidrolisados com elevado potencial antioxidante e que, mediante novos estudos, poderá vir ser incorporado em produtos alimentícios para o consumo humano.

Introduction: oxidation in biological systems is related to the development of pathologies in humans. The ingestion of foods rich in chemical compounds that exert antioxidant activity contributes to the prevention and reduction of the deleterious effects of free radicals formed in the body. Peptides derived from caseins have shown high potential as antioxidant agents. Objectives: the present study evaluated the antioxidant activity of casein hydrolysates derived from bubaline, bovine, and caprine milk obtained by the action of different proteases. Methodology: initially, the caseins were isolated from the other milk components, and then subjected to the proteolysis process by the enzymes bromelain, papain, trypsin and neutrase, individually. The antioxidant activity of the hydrolysates was evaluated, through the capacity of elimination of the radicals: hydroxyl (OH-˙), superoxide (O2-˙), 2,2 diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH˙), 2,2'azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazolino-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS˙), and chelating of the metal ions copper (Cu2+) and iron (Fe2+). Results: the results showed that bovine casein showed the lowest (35.54%) degree of hydrolysis and bubaline casein showed the highest (85.64%) degree of hydrolysis by the action of neutrase and bromelin after 480 minutes, respectively. The potential for hydroxyl radical sequestration varied between 0 and 100%, superoxide higher than 80%, ABTS higher than 85%, DPPH between 20 and 95% and the ability to chelate iron between 10 and 100% and copper between 14 and 80%. Conclusion: thus, the hydrolysis of caseins from bubaline, bovine and goat milk were able to produce hydrolysates with high antioxidant potential and that, upon further studies, may be incorporated into food products for human consumption.

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Background: Stressed and hospitalized goats are at risk of developing abomasal (gastric) ulceration, but there is a paucity of pharmacokinetic studies for proton pump inhibiting drugs, such as, esomeprazole in goats. Objectives: The objectives for this study were to estimate plasma pharmacokinetic parameters for esomeprazole in adult goats after intravenous (IV) and subcutaneous (SQ) administration. A secondary objective was to describe the plasma kinetics of the metabolite esomeprazole sulfone after IV and SC administration in goats. Materials and methods: Esomeprazole was administered to 5 adult goats in a crossover study at doses of 1 mg/kg IV or 2 mg/kg SC. Plasma samples were collected over 36 h and analyzed via reverse phase HPLC to determine concentrations of esomeprazole and esomeprazole sulfone. Pharmacokinetic parameters were derived via non-compartmental analysis. Results: Following IV administration, mean values for plasma clearance (Cl), elimination half-life [T1/2 (λz)], C0, and volume of distribution (V z ) of esomeprazole were estimated at 24.9 mL/min/kg, 6 min, 2.324 µg/mL, and 0.23 L/kg, respectively. After SC administration elimination half-life, maximum concentration (Cmax) and time to maximum concentration (Tmax) of esomeprazole were estimated at 29 min, 1.038 µg/mL, and 22 minutes respectively. Maximum concentrations of the sulfone metabolite were 32 and 18 ng/mL after IV and SC administration. Conclusion: Esomeprazole was rapidly eliminated from plasma after both IV and SC injection in goats. The elimination half-life in goats appears to be shorter than reported in dogs, as well as less than that reported for pantoprazole in goats. The sulfone metabolite was detected and also rapidly eliminated from the plasma after both IV and SC administration. Additional pharmacodynamic investigations are needed to determine the efficacy of esomeprazole on abomasal (gastric) acid suppression in goats and could include larger doses or additional routes of administration.

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Background: Ruminant species are at risk of developing abomasal ulceration, but there is a lack of pharmacokinetic data for anti-ulcer therapies, such as the proton pump inhibitor pantoprazole, in goats. Objective: The primary study objective was to estimate the plasma pharmacokinetic parameters for pantoprazole in adult goats after intravenous administration. A secondary objective was to describe the pharmacokinetic parameters for the metabolite, pantoprazole sulfone, in goats. Methods: Pantoprazole was administered intravenously to six adult goats at a dose of 1 mg/kg. Plasma samples were collected over 36h and analyzed via reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography for determination of pantoprazole and pantoprazole sulfone concentrations. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by non-compartmental analysis. Results: Plasma clearance, elimination half-life, and volume of distribution of pantoprazole were estimated at 0.345 mL/kg/min, 0.7 h, and 0.9 L/kg, respectively following IV administration. The maximum concentration, elimination half-life and area under the curve of pantoprazole sulfone were estimated at 0.1 µg/mL, 0.8 h, and 0.2 hr*µg/mL, respectively. The global extraction ratio was estimated 0.00795 ± 0.00138. All animals had normal physical examinations after conclusion of the study. Conclusion: The reported plasma clearance for pantoprazole is lower than reported for foals, calves, and alpacas. The elimination half-life appears to be < that reported for foals and calves. Future pharmacodynamic studies are necessary for determination of the efficacy of pantoprazole on acid suppression in goats.

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Anemia requiring whole blood transfusion for appropriate treatment is a common clinical presentation of caprine patients to veterinary practitioners; however, identifying suitable blood donors in goat herds can be challenging. In other veterinary species, the practice of xenotransfusion, where blood from 1 species is transfused to another, is used in emergency settings. Due to their ability to donate large volumes of whole blood, cattle could be an ideal source for xenotransfusion of goats. In this study 2 healthy goats were transfused with bovine whole blood. The goats were then monitored for adverse effects and the presence of bovine erythrocyte post-xenotransfusion. Afterward, 15 caprine-bovine combinations were evaluated for compatibility via cross-matching. Both goats tolerated xenotransfusion, although transient reactions were observed. Of the 15 cross-match combinations, 11 of the major cross matches were compatible, and all minor cross matches were also compatible. While future work is necessary to refine this technique, xenotransfusion of goats with cattle blood may be a therapeutic modality for the treatment of caprine anemia.

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Goats are a primary or additional income source for many families in resource-poor areas. Although often considered inferior to other livestock, the resilience of goats and their ability to thrive in a range of environments means that that they are of particular value. Furthermore, goats emit less methane than other livestock species. In these same areas, it is well-documented that cryptosporidiosis has a substantial impact on infant morbidity and mortality, as well as reducing child growth and development. As Cryptosporidium also causes diarrheal disease in goats, the question arises whether goats may represent a reservoir of infection to humans. Epidemiological studies regarding the potential for transmission of Cryptosporidium between goats and humans have largely concluded that Cryptosporidium species infecting goats are not zoonotic. However, these studies are mostly from developed countries, where goat husbandry is smaller, management routines differ greatly from those of developing countries, contact between goats and their owners is more limited, and cryptosporidiosis has less impact on human health. In this article, background information on goat husbandry in different countries is provided, along with information on Cryptosporidium prevalence among goats, at both the species and sub-species levels, and the potential for zoonotic transmission. The intention is to indicate data gaps that should be filled and to increase awareness of the role of goats as providers for low-income families, often living in areas where cryptosporidiosis is endemic and where appropriate baseline interventions could have a positive impact, regardless of species of goat or parasite.

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Growth literature often uses the Brody, Gompertz, Verhulst, and von Bertalanffy models. Is there a rationale for the preference of these classical named models? The versatile five-parameter Bertalanffy-Pütter (BP) model generalizes these models. We revisited peer-reviewed publications from the years 1970-2019 that fitted growth models to together 122 mass-at-age data of sheep and goats from 19 countries and studied the best-fit BP-models using the least-squares method. None of the named models was ever best-fitting. However, for 70% of the data a single non-sigmoidal model had an acceptable fit (normalized root mean squared error 〈 5% and F-ratio test 〉 5% in comparison to the best-fit): the Brody model. The inherently non-sigmoidal character was further underlined, as there were only 39% of the data, where the best-fitting BP-model had a discernible inflection point. For these data, conclusions of biological interest could be drawn from the sigmoidal best-fit BP-models: the maximal weight gain per day was about 55% higher than the natal weight gain per day.

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A Rock Alpine doe (Capra aegagrus hircus) was presented to the Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital because of scaling and ulceration over the withers, coronary bands, and dewclaws. The doe was euthanized because of poor prognosis associated with a radiographically identified cranial mediastinal mass, increased respiratory effort, and discomfort. Autopsy revealed a cranial mediastinal mass, and scaling-to-ulcerative lesions affecting the dorsum, ventrum, pinna, neck, teats, coronary bands, and dewclaws. Histologically, the mediastinal mass was an epithelial neoplasm with admixed non-neoplastic T lymphocytes, consistent with a lymphoepithelial (mixed) thymoma. Sections of affected skin were characterized by hyperkeratotic cell-rich interface dermatitis with transepidermal and follicular apoptosis. Thymoma-associated exfoliative dermatitis has been recognized in cats and a rabbit, but has not been reported previously in a goat, to our knowledge. Given that thymomas are not uncommon in goats, thymoma-associated exfoliative dermatitis should be considered a clinical differential in goats with dermatologic disease.

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Questions around how to conserve nature are increasingly leading to dissonance in conservation planning and action. While science can assist in unraveling the nature of conservation challenges, conservation responses rely heavily on normative positions and constructs to order actions, aid interpretations, and provide motivation. However, problems can arise when norms are mistaken for science or when they stymy scientific rigor. To highlight these potential pitfalls, we used the ethics-based tool of argument analysis to assess a controversial conservation intervention, the Pelorus Island Goat Control Program. The program proponents' argument for restorative justice was unsound because it relied on weak logical construction overly entrenched in normative assumptions. Overreliance on normative constructs, particularly the invocation of tragedy, creates a sense of urgency that can subvert scientific and ethical integrity, obscure values and assumptions, and increase the propensity for flawed logic. This example demonstrates how the same constructs that drive biodiversity conservation can also drive poor decision making, spur public backlash, and justify poor animal welfare outcomes. To provide clarity, a decision-making flowchart we devised demonstrates how values, norms, and ethics influence one another. We recommend practitioners follow 3 key points to improve decision making: be aware of values, as well as normative constructs and ethical theories that those values inform; be mindful of overreliance on either normative constructs or ethics when deciding action is justified; and be logically sound and transparent when building justifications. We also recommend 5 key attributes that practitioners should be attentive to when making conservation decisions: clarity, transparency, scientific integrity, adaptiveness, and compassion. Greater attention to the role of norms in decision making will improve conservation outcomes and garner greater public support for actions.

Advertencias contra el Énfasis Excesivo de los Constructos Normativos en la Toma de Decisiones de Conservación Resumen Cada vez más, las dudas en torno a cómo conservar la naturaleza llevan a la disonancia en la acción y planeación de la conservación. Mientras que la ciencia puede asistir en el entendimiento de la naturaleza de los retos de conservación, las respuestas de conservación dependen enormemente de posiciones y constructos normativos para ordenar acciones, apoyar a las interpretaciones y proporcionar motivación. Sin embargo, pueden surgir problemas cuando se confunde a las normas con la ciencia o cuando obstaculizan el rigor científico. Con el objetivo de resaltar estos potenciales inconvenientes, usamos el análisis de argumentos, una herramienta basada en la ética, para evaluar una controversial intervención de conservación: el Programa de Control de Cabras en Isla Pelorus. El argumento de justicia restaurativa de quienes propusieron el programa era irracional pues dependía de una débil construcción lógica demasiado arraigada en suposiciones normativas. La sobredependencia de constructos normativos, particularmente la invocación de la tragedia, genera una sensación de urgencia que puede subvertir la integridad científica y ética, oscurecer los valores y las suposiciones e incrementar la tendencia hacia la lógica defectuosa. Este ejemplo demuestra cómo los mismos constructos que guían la conservación de la biodiversidad también pueden llevar a una toma pobre de decisiones, incitar a respuestas negativas del público y a justificar los malos resultados de bienestar animal. Para proporcionar claridad, diseñamos un diagrama de flujo de toma de decisiones que demuestra cómo los valores, las normas y la ética influyen unas sobre las otras. Les recomendamos a los practicantes que sigan tres puntos clave para mejorar la toma de decisiones: tener conciencia de los valores, así como de los constructos normativos y las teorías éticas a las que esos valores informan; estar consciente de la sobredependencia tanto de los constructos normativos como de la ética cuando se decide si una acción está justificada; y ser racional y transparente de manera lógica cuando se construyan las justificaciones. También recomendamos cinco atributos clave a los cuales los practicantes deben estar atentos cuando se toman decisiones de conservación: claridad, transparencia, integridad científica, adaptabilidad y compasión. Una mayor atención al papel de las normas en la toma de decisiones mejorará los resultados de conservación y acumulará un mayor respaldo del público para las acciones.

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BACKGROUND: Defining hidden genetic diversity within species is of great significance when attempting to maintain the evolutionary potential of natural populations and conduct appropriate management. Our hypothesis is that isolated (and eventually small) wild animal populations hide unexpected genetic diversity due to their maintenance of ancient polymorphisms or introgressions. RESULTS: We tested this hypothesis using the Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) as an example. Previous studies based on large sample sizes taken from its principal populations have revealed that the Iberian ibex has a remarkably small MHC DRB1 diversity (only six remnant alleles) as a result of recent population bottlenecks and a marked demographic decline that has led to the extinction of two recognized subspecies. Extending on the geographic range to include non-studied isolated Iberian ibex populations, we sequenced a new MHC DRB1 in what seemed three small isolated populations in Southern Spain (n = 132). The findings indicate a higher genetic diversity than previously reported in this important gene. The newly discovered allele, MHC DRB1*7, is identical to one reported in the domestic goat C. aegagrus hircus. Whether or not this is the result of ancient polymorphisms maintained by balancing selection or, alternatively, introgressions from domestic goats through hybridization needs to be clarified in future studies. However, hybridization between Iberian ibex and domestic goats has been reported in Spain and the fact that the newly discovered allele is only present in one of the small isolated populations and not in the others suggests introgression. The new discovered allele is not expected to increase fitness in C. pyrenaica since it generates the same protein as the existing MHC DRB1*6. Analysis of a microsatellite locus (OLADRB1) near the new MHC DRB1*7 gene reveals a linkage disequilibrium between these two loci. The allele OLADRB1, 187 bp in length, was unambiguously linked to the MHC DRB1*7 allele. This enabled us to perform a DRB-STR matching method for the recently discovered MHC allele. CONCLUSIONS: This finding is critical for the conservation of the Iberian ibex since it directly affects the identification of the units of this species that should be managed and conserved separately (Evolutionarily Significant Units).

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The transport phase of the animal-mediated plant dispersal process is critical to dispersal effectiveness as it determines the spatial distribution of the diaspores released and their chance for further recruitment. Assessing this specific phase of the dispersal process generally requires combining diaspore retention times with the associated distances covered. Here, we specifically tested the effect of grooming behavior, interindividual contacts and ungulate fur on diaspore retention times and associated dispersal distances for the hooked diaspores of Xanthium strumarium L. experimentally attached to tamed individuals of three ungulate species. We used a comparative approach based on differing fur quality on different body zones of these three ungulates. During 6-hr sessions, we monitored for grooming and social interactions that may induce intended or inadvertent diaspore detachment. Additionally, we proposed innovative approaches to directly assessing diaspore dispersal distances by red deer in situ. Fat-tailed functions fitted diaspore retention time, highlighting the potential for long-distance dispersal events. The longer the hair, the higher the retention capacity of diaspores in the animal's fur. As predicted, donkey retained diaspores longer than red deer and dwarf goat; and we also confirmed that diaspores attached to the short hair of the head fell off more quickly than did those on the other body zones. Dwarf goat groomed more often than both red deer and donkey, but also when it carried diaspores. Up to 14% of the diaspores detached from animal fur after specific grooming behavior. We observed, in controlled conditions, for the first time and for each ungulate species, interindividual transfers of diaspores, representing 5% of the diaspores attached to animals' fur. Our results militate for incorporating animal behavior into plant dispersal modeling approaches.

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Chlamydia abortus is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacteria, which can infect animals and human, including goats. However, little information on C. abortus infection is available in goats in Hunan province, subtropical China. To investigate the seroprevalence and risk factors of C. abortus infection in goats in Hunan province, China, a total of 911 goat blood samples were collected randomly from 14 herds having number of goats ranging from 1000 to 3000 from March 2014 to December 2015. Seropositive animals were found in 11 out of 14 (78.57%) goat herds with seroprevalence ranging from 0.00% to 29.94% in individual herds. Overall, the seroprevalence of C. abortus infection was different among regions (southern Hunan: 1.78%; northeast Hunan: 5.47%; and west Hunan: 15.29%), gender (male: 4.58% and female: 9.10%), seasons (spring: 5.97%; summer: 2.61%; autumn: 16.88%; and winter: 10.94%), and ages (year ≤1: 2.39%; 1 < year ≤2: 9.58%; 2 < year ≤3: 9.16%; and year >3: 17.57%). Risk factors for C. abortus infection were associated with region, season, and age in this study. To our knowledge, this is the first document to demonstrate the existence of C. abortus infection in goats, and the seroprevalence was 8.45% out of 911 goats in Hunan province.

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