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Ensuring equitable chronic kidney disease (CKD) education for Latine patients with low health literacy and low English proficiency stands as a critical challenge, and the "Caridad Awareness and Education" (CARE) initiative represents our ongoing effort to address this imperative issue. In collaboration with twenty-three patients living with CKD, diabetes and/or hypertension and twelve trained Community Health Workers (CHWs) from diverse Latine subgroups, we conducted a research initiative funded by the National Kidney Foundation. Our primary objective was to co-design and test culturally tailored patient education materials (PEMs) for underserved Latine adults at risk for or diagnosed with CKD. We effectively integrated Community-Engaged Research (CEnR) principles with a Human-Centered Design (HCD) approach to create a range of CKD-PEM prototypes in Spanish. Patient preferences for printed educational materials were clear. They favored printed materials that incorporated visual content with concise text over digital, email, texts, or online resources and personalized phone outreach and the involvement of CHWs. Additionally, patients identified their unwavering commitment to their families as a forceful motivator for caring for their kidney health. Currently, a culturally and linguistically tailored CKD flipchart for one-on-one education, led by CHWs, is undergoing a pilot testing phase involving a sample of one hundred Latine patients at risk for or diagnosed with CKD. This innovative approach signifies a commitment to amplifying the insights and expertise of the Latine community afflicted by kidney health disparities, effectively embracing a CEnR to forge meaningful and impactful CKD-PEMs.

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Rationale & Objective: To design and implement clinical decision support incorporating a validated risk prediction estimate of kidney failure in primary care clinics and to evaluate the impact on stage-appropriate monitoring and referral. Study Design: Block-randomized, pragmatic clinical trial. Setting & Participants: Ten primary care clinics in the greater Boston area. Patients with stage 3-5 chronic kidney disease (CKD) were included. Patients were randomized within each primary care physician panel through a block randomization approach. The trial occurred between December 4, 2015, and December 3, 2016. Intervention: Point-of-care noninterruptive clinical decision support that delivered the 5-year kidney failure risk equation as well as recommendations for stage-appropriate monitoring and referral to nephrology. Outcomes: The primary outcome was as follows: Urine and serum laboratory monitoring test findings measured at one timepoint 6 months after the initial primary care visit and analyzed only in patients who had not undergone the recommended monitoring test in the preceding 12 months. The secondary outcome was nephrology referral in patients with a calculated kidney failure risk equation value of >10% measured at one timepoint 6 months after the initial primary care visit. Results: The clinical decision support application requested and processed 569,533 Continuity of Care Documents during the study period. Of these, 41,842 (7.3%) documents led to a diagnosis of stage 3, 4, or 5 CKD by the clinical decision support application. A total of 5,590 patients with stage 3, 4, or 5 CKD were randomized and included in the study. The link to the clinical decision support application was clicked 122 times by 57 primary care physicians. There was no association between the clinical decision support intervention and the primary outcome. There was a small but statistically significant difference in nephrology referral, with a higher rate of referral in the control arm. Limitations: Contamination within provider and clinic may have attenuated the impact of the intervention and may have biased the result toward null. Conclusions: The noninterruptive design of the clinical decision support was selected to prevent cognitive overload; however, the design led to a very low rate of use and ultimately did not improve stage-appropriate monitoring. Funding: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases of the National Institutes of Health under award K23DK097187. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02990897.

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BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease is a common and prevalent condition in the United States. However, 90% of individuals with chronic kidney disease are unaware of their diagnosis. AIMS: To summarize the empirical and theoretical literature to provide a comprehensive understanding of the social determinants of health inequities associated with CKD awareness. Social determinants of health inequities are underlying pathways that shape the health opportunities of individuals based on their social position. DESIGN: Integrative review. DATA SOURCES: (May 2020 through July 2020) Data sources included PubMed, sociological abstracts, ScienceDirect, CINAHL and Google Scholar. REVIEW METHODS: Quantitative, qualitative and theoretical articles describing the association of social determinants of health inequities and chronic kidney disease awareness were included. RESULTS: A total of 19 articles were reviewed: two qualitative, one theoretical and 16 quantitative. CONCLUSION: Findings from this review revealed that socioeconomic status, education, race and gender are consistently associated with patient chronic kidney disease awareness. These findings should serve as a basis for further research on interventions to improve chronic kidney disease awareness as well as guide nurses and health care professionals in caring for this population.

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As a result of the growing number of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, the prevalence of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) has proven to be one of the fastest growing health care challenges globally. Early detection and initiation of appropriate interventions to slow the progression of DKD are impeded by low awareness of the health consequences of DKD, high complexity of care that includes the need for lifestyle modifications, difficulties with adhering to increasingly complicated medication regimens, and low acceptance and application of guideline-directed management. After 2 decades of status quo in the care of patients with DKD, recently approved glucose-lowering agents are promising to transform care by demonstrating slowed DKD disease progression and improved survival. As has been learned over the last 2 decades, multiple barriers exist to the optimal integration and utilization of new therapies to improve kidney outcomes. The health care community, professional societies, and regulatory agencies must join efforts to develop implementation strategies for increasing DKD awareness, detection, and treatment.

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BACKGROUND: Neighborhood social cohesion (NSC) is the network of relationships as well as the shared values and norms of residents in a neighborhood. Higher NSC has been associated with improved cardiovascular health, largely among Whites but not African Americans. In a bi-racial cohort, we aimed to study the association between NSC and chronic disease awareness and engagement in healthy self-management behaviors, two potential mechanisms by which NSC could impact cardiovascular health outcomes. METHODS: Using the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity Across the Lifespan Study (HANDLS), we cross-sectionally examined the association between NSC and awareness of three chronic conditions (diabetes, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and hypertension) and engagement in healthy self-management behaviors including physical activity, healthy eating, and cigarette avoidance. RESULTS: Study participants (n = 2082) had a mean age of 56.5 years; 38.7% were White and 61.4% African American. Of the participants, 26% had diabetes, 70% had hypertension and 20.2% had CKD. Mean NSC was 3.3 (SD = 0.80) on a scale of 1 (lowest score) to 5 (highest score). There was no significant association between NSC and any chronic disease awareness, overall or by race. However, each higher point in mean NSC score was associated with less cigarette use and healthier eating scores, among Whites (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 95% confidence interval [CI]: =0.76, 0.61-0.94; beta coefficient [ßc]:, 95% CI: 1.75; 0.55-2.97, respectively) but not African Americans (aOR = 0.95, 0.79-1.13; ßc: 0.46, - 0.48-1.39, respectively; Pinteraction = 0.08 and 0.06). Among both Whites and African Americans, higher NSC scores were associated with increases in self-reported physical activity (ßc: 0.12; 0.08-0.16; Pinteraction = 0.40). CONCLUSIONS: Community engagement and neighborhood social cohesion may be important targets for promotion of healthy behaviors and cardiovascular disease prevention. More research is needed to understand the different associations of NSC and healthy behaviors by race.

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RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Patient awareness of disease is the first step toward effective management and disease control. Awareness of chronic kidney disease (CKD) has consistently been shown to be low, but studies estimating patient awareness of CKD have used different methods. We sought to determine whether the estimated prevalence of CKD awareness differed by the wording used to ascertain awareness or by setting characteristics. STUDY DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis. SETTING & STUDY POPULATIONS: Adults with CKD not receiving dialysis. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR STUDIES: We included studies that estimated CKD awareness, determined CKD status by laboratory criteria, and provided the exact question wording used to ascertain awareness. DATA EXTRACTION: 2 reviewers independently extracted data for each study; discordance was resolved by a third independent reviewer. ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Mixed-effects models were used to calculate pooled CKD awareness estimates and 95% CIs. RESULTS: 32 studies were included. Publication year ranged from 2004 to 2017, with study populations ranging from 107 to 28,923 individuals. CKD awareness in individual studies ranged from 0.9% to 94.0%. Pooled CKD awareness was 19.2% (95% CI, 10.0%-33.6%) overall and was 26.5% (95% CI, 11.9%-48.9%) among individuals with an estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2. "Kidney problem" was the most sensitive question for CKD awareness (58.7%; 95% CI, 32.4%-80.8%); "weak or failing kidneys" was the least sensitive (12.3%; 95% CI, 4.5%-29.4%). CKD awareness was highest among patients from nephrology practices (86.2%; 95% CI, 74.9%-93.0%) and lowest in the general population (7.3%; 95% CI, 5.0%-10.5%). LIMITATIONS: Significant heterogeneity across studies overall and among examined subgroups of wording and study setting. CONCLUSIONS: Differently worded questions may lead to widely different estimates of CKD awareness. Consistent terminology is likely needed to most effectively surveil and leverage CKD awareness to improve management and disease control.

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RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Most adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the United States are cared for by primary care providers (PCPs). We evaluated the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of an electronic clinical decision support system (eCDSS) within the electronic health record with or without pharmacist follow-up to improve the management of CKD in primary care. STUDY DESIGN: Pragmatic cluster-randomized trial. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 524 adults with confirmed creatinine-based estimated glomerular filtration rates of 30 to 59mL/min/1.73m2 cared for by 80 PCPs at the University of California San Francisco. Electronic health record data were used for patient identification, intervention deployment, and outcomes ascertainment. INTERVENTIONS: Each PCP's eligible patients were randomly assigned as a group into 1 of 3 treatment arms: (1) usual care; (2) eCDSS: testing of creatinine, cystatin C, and urinary albumin-creatinine ratio with individually tailored guidance for PCPs on blood pressure, potassium, and proteinuria management, cardiovascular risk reduction, and patient education; or (3) eCDSS plus pharmacist counseling (eCDSS-PLUS). OUTCOMES: The primary clinical outcome was change in blood pressure over 12 months. Secondary outcomes were PCP awareness of CKD and use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker and statin therapy. RESULTS: All 80 eligible PCPs participated. Mean patient age was 70 years, 47% were nonwhite, and mean estimated glomerular filtration rate was 56±0.6mL/min/1.73m2. Among patients receiving eCDSS with or without pharmacist counseling (n=336), 178 (53%) completed laboratory measurements and 138 (41%) had laboratory measurements followed by a PCP visit with eCDSS deployment. eCDSS was opened by the PCP for 102 (74%) patients, with at least 1 suggested order signed for 83 of these 102 (81%). Changes in systolic blood pressure were-2.1±1.5mm Hg with usual care, -2.8±1.8mm Hg with eCDSS, and -1.1±1.1 with eCDSS-PLUS (P=0.7). PCP awareness of CKD was 16% with usual care, 26% with eCDSS, and 32% for eCDSS-PLUS (P=0.09). In as-treated analyses, PCP awareness of CKD was significantly greater with eCDSS and eCDSS-PLUS (73% and 69%) versus usual care (47%; P=0.002). LIMITATIONS: Recruitment of smaller than intended sample size and limited uptake of the testing component of the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Although we were unable to demonstrate the effectiveness of eCDSS to lower blood pressure and uptake of the eCDSS was limited by low testing rates, eCDSS use was high when laboratory measurements were available and was associated with higher PCP awareness of CKD. FUNDING: Grants from government (National Institutes of Health) and not-for-profit (American Heart Association) entities. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registered at ClinicalTrials.gov with study number NCT02925962.

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BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a serious complication of diabetes associated with adverse outcomes of renal failure, cardiovascular disease and mortality. Despite this, data regarding the burden and awareness of CKD among adults with diabetes in Sub-Saharan Africa countries are lacking. The aim of this study was, therefore to determine the prevalence and awareness of CKD among diabetic outpatients attending a hospital in Northeast Ethiopia. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study on 323 diabetic adults at the diabetes clinic of a hospital in Northeast Ethiopia, from February 1 to July 30, 2016. Each patient provided a blood sample for serum creatinine and urine for albuminuria. Glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was estimated using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation. CKD was defined as eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 and/or albuminuria. Awareness was defined as a positive response to "Has a doctor or other health care professional ever told you that you had kidney disease?" RESULTS: Of the 323 patients, 85 (26.3%) had Stage 1-5 CKD, 42 (13.0%) had eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2 and 58 (18.0%) had albuminuria. In patients with eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2 (stage 3-5 CKD), serum creatinine was abnormal (> 1.5 mg/dl) in 23.5% and albuminuria was absent in 31.8%. Of the patients with CKD, only 10.6% of them were aware of their CKD. The proportion of patients who were aware of their disease increased with worsening of CKD stages, from 3.4% of with stage 1 to 75.0% with stage 4. Awareness for all individuals with advanced stages of CKD was only 11.9%. Having albuminuria, high serum creatinine, a family history of kidney disease and being obese were significantly associated with CKD awareness. CONCLUSION: A high prevalence but low awareness of CKD was found in diabetic outpatients attending our clinic in Northeast Ethiopia. Our results highlight the need for more diagnostic strategies for CKD screening among diabetic adults and primary care education on the impact of detecting CKD in the early stage to prevent adverse outcomes and improve diabetes care.

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RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Persons with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are often unaware of their disease status. Efforts to improve CKD awareness may be most effective if focused on persons at highest risk for progression to kidney failure. STUDY DESIGN: Serial cross-sectional surveys. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: Nonpregnant adults (aged≥20 years) with CKD glomerular filtration rate categories 3-4 (G3-G4) who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 1999 to 2016 (n = 3,713). PREDICTOR: 5-year kidney failure risk, estimated using the Kidney Failure Risk Equation. Predicted risk was categorized as minimal (<2%), low (2%-<5%), intermediate (5%-<15%), or high (≥15%). OUTCOME: CKD awareness, defined by answering "yes" to the question "Have you ever been told by a doctor or other health professional that you had weak or failing kidneys?" ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Prevalence of CKD awareness was estimated within each risk group using complex sample survey methods. Associations between Kidney Failure Risk Equation risk and CKD awareness were assessed using multivariable logistic regression. CKD awareness was compared with awareness of hypertension and diabetes during the same period. RESULTS: In 2011 to 2016, unadjusted CKD awareness was 9.6%, 22.6%, 44.7%, and 49.0% in the minimal-, low-, intermediate-, and high-risk groups, respectively. In adjusted analyses, these proportions did not change over time. Awareness of CKD, including among the highest risk group, remains consistently below that of hypertension and diabetes and awareness of these conditions increased over time. LIMITATIONS: Imperfect sensitivity of the "weak or failing kidneys" question for ascertaining CKD awareness. CONCLUSIONS: Among adults with CKD G3-G4 who have 5-year estimated risks for kidney failure of 5%-<15% and≥15%, approximately half were unaware of their kidney disease, a gap that has persisted nearly 2 decades.

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RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Data from patients in one delivery system have suggested that the prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) awareness differs by how the question is asked. We examined the sensitivity and specificity of different CKD awareness questions among diverse community-dwelling adults who were not necessarily engaged in primary care to determine the generalizability of prior results. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: Participants in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity Across the Life Span (HANDLS) Study. PREDICTOR: CKD awareness, ascertained using 5 different questions. OUTCOME: Sensitivity and specificity of each awareness question, using laboratory results as the gold standard. ANALYTIC APPROACH: Logistic regression was used to compare sensitivities of different awareness questions. RESULTS: Among 2,046 participants, mean (SD) age was 56.5 (9.1) years, 41.5% were men, and 61.3% were African American. More than 40% were poor, 35% reported not having health insurance, and 16.9% had low health literacy. More than 20% (n = 424) had CKD. Sensitivities of single CKD awareness questions ranged from 2.2% for "kidney damage" to 5.2% for "kidney problem." Sensitivity of the compound question asking about "weak kidneys, failing kidneys, or kidney disease" was 19.5%. Sensitivity of this compound CKD awareness question was higher among study participants with more advanced CKD and low health literacy, and those who lived below the poverty level. LIMITATIONS: Single measures of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria; study participants may have been more engaged in their health care than the average US adult, potentially limiting the generalizability of results. CONCLUSIONS: CKD awareness is low among community-dwelling adults with kidney disease, though data using a sensitive compound question ascertaining awareness suggest that we have met the Healthy People 2020 goal related to CKD awareness of 13.4%. Understanding the phrases about kidney disease that are most understandable to patients with and at risk for CKD is important to further increase CKD awareness.

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BACKGROUND: Affecting a substantial proportion of adults, chronic kidney disease (CKD) is considered a major risk factor for cardiovascular (CV) events. It has been reported that patients with CKD are underserved when it comes to CV risk reduction efforts. STUDY DESIGN: Prespecified subgroup analysis of a randomized controlled trial. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: Adults with CKD and at least 1 uncontrolled CV risk factor were enrolled from 56 pharmacies across Alberta, Canada. INTERVENTION: Patient, laboratory, and individualized CV risk assessments; treatment recommendations; prescription adaptation(s) and/or initiation as necessary; and regular monthly follow-up for 3 months. OUTCOMES: The primary outcome was change in estimated CV risk from baseline to 3 months after randomization. Secondary outcomes were change between baseline and 3 months after randomization in individual CV risk factors (ie, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, blood pressure, and hemoglobin A1c), risk for developing end-stage renal disease, and medication use and dosage; tobacco cessation 3 months after randomization for those who used tobacco at baseline; and the impact of rural versus urban residence on the difference in change in estimated CV risk. MEASUREMENTS: CV risk was estimated using the Framingham, UK Prospective Diabetes Study, and international risk assessment equations depending on the patients' comorbid conditions. RESULTS: 290 of the 723 participants enrolled in RxEACH had CKD. After adjusting for baseline values, the difference in change in CV risk was 20% (P<0.001). Changes of 0.2mmol/L in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration (P=0.004), 10.5mmHg in systolic blood pressure (P<0.001), 0.7% in hemoglobin A1c concentration (P<0.001), and 19.6% in smoking cessation (P=0.04) were observed when comparing the intervention and control groups. There was a larger reduction in CV risk in patients living in rural locations versus those living in urban areas. LIMITATIONS: The 3-month follow-up period can be considered relatively short. It is possible that larger reduction in CV risk could have been observed with a longer follow up period. CONCLUSIONS: This subgroup analysis demonstrated that a community pharmacy-based intervention program reduced CV risk and improved control of individual CV risk factors. This represents a promising approach to identifying and managing patients with CKD that could have important public health implications.

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Knowledge is a prerequisite for changing behavior, and is useful for improving outcomes and reducing mortality rates in patients diagnosed with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The purpose of this article is to describe baseline CKD knowledge and awareness obtained as part of a larger study testing the feasibility of a self-management intervention. Thirty patients were recruited who had CKD Stage 3 with coexisting diabetes and hypertension. Fifty-four percent of the sample were unaware of their CKD diagnosis. Participants had a moderate amount of CKD knowledge. This study suggests the need to increase knowledge in patients with CKD Stage 3 to aid in slowing disease progression.

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BACKGROUND: Chronic disease registries have been successful at promoting the delivery of guideline-concordant primary care for patients with diabetes and hypertension, but not for chronic kidney disease (CKD). To understand whether a registry could be designed to improve CKD management in primary care, we explored primary care provider attitudes about the benefits (or lack thereof) of a CKD registry compared with other chronic diseases and the key facilitators of successfully implementing a CKD registry in safety-net primary care. STUDY DESIGN: Qualitative, using semistructured interviews. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: We conducted and recorded semistructured 1-hour interviews with medical directors and quality improvement champions from safety-net adult primary care clinics in San Francisco. ANALYTIC APPROACH: Recordings were transcribed and analyzed using a grounded theory approach until thematic saturation was achieved. RESULTS: 20 primary care providers were interviewed. 4 themes relevant to the development of a successful CKD registry for safety-net primary care were identified: (1) provider beliefs that a CKD registry could aid in the delivery of team-based high-quality CKD care; (2) clinic workflow redesign and staffing are key facilitators to successful implementation of a CKD registry; (3) unique complexities of CKD, such as varying etiologies, may limit the use of a CKD registry by nonphysicians; and (4) a CKD registry is aligned with current primary care priorities and health care delivery strategies. LIMITATIONS: Small sample size and reliance on clinician leaders within one health care delivery system. CONCLUSIONS: A CKD registry directed at the entire health care team, with the functionality to track, standardize, and enhance CKD care through decision support, has the potential to improve the management of CKD in safety-net primary care settings. These data directly informed the development of a CKD registry in these settings in San Francisco.

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