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Aggressiveness and unethical behaviors are an important problem in sports today. Understanding how to properly measure and manage an athlete's aggressive tendency is a crucial lesson to be learned within the rulesets of a sporting environment. This study aims at validating the Italian version of the Competitive Aggressiveness and Anger Scale (CAAS), specifically developed to measure aggressiveness and anger in athletes. The second aim is to investigate how aggressive and antisocial behaviors are modulated by sex, competitive level (i.e., amateur and competitive), sport contact (i.e., contact and no-contact), and sport type (i.e., team and individual). Two hundred and ninety-six athletes (mean age = 22.42 years, SD = 2.86) were asked to fill out a survey about sociodemographic variables, sport specific data, attitudes to moral decisions, past cheating behavior, and aggression. The Italian version of the CAAS presented a good fit of the data, adequate internal consistency and its construct validity was supported via convergent and discriminant validity. Both aggressiveness and anger dimensions of CAAS positively related with acceptance of cheating and gamesmanship, and past cheating behavior, while only the aggressiveness dimension of the CAAS negatively related with prosocial attitude. Competitive male athletes practicing contact sport showed the highest levels of aggressiveness, while competitive athletes practicing team sport showed the highest level of anger. This study represents the first empirical construct validity evidence of CAAS among Italian athletes and provides a deeper understanding of how athletes' aggressive tendencies and antisocial behavior differ across athlete populations.

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OBJECTIVE: We investigated relationships between the triarchic model of psychopathy, coping styles, and externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and verified the mediating effect of coping styles. METHODS: Participants were 957 adults responding to the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure, Inventory of depression and anxiety symptoms expanded version, and Crime and Analogous Behavior Scale. RESULTS: Data were analyzed using four path analyses to test our hypothesis, indicating each triarchic trait is differently associated with psychological symptoms and coping styles. We also observed the preference for some coping styles affecting the association between triarchic traits and psychological symptoms. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that coping styles affect only the associations between boldness*distress and boldness*fear, indicating that specific coping strategies can account for variations in distress and fear linked to boldness.

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Although parental academic socialization may be a product of culture, ethnic/racial minority status may play a significant role, above and beyond the impact of culture, in shaping parental academic socialization and its implications for youth adjustments. This study examined Korean youth living in South Korea (N = 524, Mage = 14.98, SD = 1.45, 50.1% female), China (N = 267, Mage = 15.24, SD = 1.66, 58.9% female), and the U.S. (N = 408, Mage = 14.76, SD = 1.91, 47.3% female) who share the same heritage culture but have different social positions (majority or minority). Korean youth as an ethnic/racial minority in the U.S. or China reported higher parental academic socialization than those in South Korea, supporting a significant role of social positions in how parents practice academic socialization. This study also found that the distinct practices of academic socialization function differently in youth adjustment. Parental commitment to education, parental involvement, and autonomy support were positively associated with youth's school engagement, but achievement-oriented psychological control was associated with more depressive symptoms and antisocial behaviors. These associations did not differ across the three samples. Some nuanced differences also emerged. Parental commitment to education was associated with higher grades in Korean Chinese (but not Korean American) youth, and achievement-oriented psychological control was associated with lower school engagement among Korean Chinese (but not South Korean) youth and higher grades among South Korean (but not Korean American) youth. These findings highlight the role of academic socialization as an adaptive strategy for ethnic/racial minorities to succeed in host societies and the generally universal role of parental academic socialization in youth adjustments.

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OBJECTIVE: We investigated relationships between the triarchic model of psychopathy, coping styles, and externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and verified the mediating effect of coping styles. METHODS: Participants were 957 adults responding to the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure, Inventory of depression and anxiety symptoms expanded version, and Crime and Analogous Behavior Scale. RESULTS: Data were analyzed using four path analyses to test our hypothesis, indicating each triarchic trait is differently associated with psychological symptoms and coping styles. We also observed the preference for some coping styles affecting the association between triarchic traits and psychological symptoms. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that coping styles affect only the associations between boldness*distress and boldness*fear, indicating that specific coping strategies can account for variations in distress and fear linked to boldness.

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A recent meta-analysis of resting-state functional connectivity studies revealed that individuals exhibiting antisocial behaviors or conduct problems may show disrupted brain connectivity in networks underpinning socio-affective and attentional processes. However, studies included in the meta-analysis generally rely on small sample sizes and substantially differ in terms of psychometric scales and neuroimaging methodologies. Therefore, we aimed to identify reliable functional brain connectivity alterations associated with severity of conduct problems using a large sample of adolescents and two measures of conduct problems. In a sample of 1416 children and adolescents, mass-univariate analyses of connectivity measures between 333 cortical parcels were conducted to examine the relationship between resting-state functional cortical-cortical connectome and the severity of conduct problems using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). At a liberal threshold, results showed that the functional brain connectivity significantly associated with conduct problems largely differ between the two scales. Indeed, only 21 pairs of brain regions overlapped between the CBCL and SDQ. Permutation feature importance of these 21 brain connectivity measures revealed that connectivity between precentral/postcentral gyri and lateral prefrontal cortex (both ventral and dorsal) were the most important features in explaining variance in conduct problems. The current study highlights that psychometric measures may yield distinct functional connectivity results. Moreover, severity of conduct problems in children and adolescents was mainly associated with deficient functional connectivity of somatomotor and ventral attention networks indicating potential alterations in motor, cognitive and reward processes.

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In the past decades, a growing body of evidence has suggested that some individuals may exhibit antisocial behaviors following brain lesions. Recently, some authors have shown that lesions underpinning antisocial behaviors may disrupt a particular brain network during resting-state. However, it remains unknown whether these brain lesions may alter specific mental processes during tasks. Therefore, we conducted meta-analytic co-activation analyses on lesion masks of 17 individuals who acquired antisocial behaviors following their brain lesions. Each lesion mask was used as a seed of interest to examine their aberrant co-activation network using a database of 143 whole-brain neuroimaging studies on antisocial behaviors (n = 5,913 subjects). We aimed to map the lesion brain network that shows deficient activity in antisocial population against a null distribution derived from 655 control lesions. We further characterized the lesion-based meta-analytic network using term-based decoding (Neurosynth) as well as receptor/transporter density maps (JuSpace). We found that the lesion meta-analytic network included the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, ventro- and dorso-medial prefrontal cortex, fusiform face area, and supplementary motor area (SMA), which correlated mainly with emotional face processing and serotoninergic system (5-HT1A and 5-HTT). We also investigated the heterogeneity in co-activation networks through data-driven methods and found that lesions could be grouped in four main networks, encompassing emotional face processing, general emotion processing, and reward processing. Our study shows that the heterogeneous brain lesions underpinning antisocial behaviors may disrupt specific mental processes, which further increases the risk for distinct antisocial symptoms. It also highlights the importance and complexity of studying brain lesions in relationship with antisocial behaviors.

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Antisocial behavior (AB) is a complex phenomenon, predicted by a wide range of biological, environmental, and personality factors. These have high human and economic costs especially in adolescents, highlighting the importance of investigating factors that may be associated with these behaviors. Among the most potent predictors of AB are early life experiences and personality. To this end, the present study sought to investigate the association between early life parental abuse and behavioral activation system (BAS) personality traits assessed within the reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) framework and antisocial behaviors in Mexican adolescents. Our sample consisted of 342 adolescents (Mage = 17, SD = 2.47) from northwestern Mexico. Participants, after parental consent and participant consent/assent (if minors), self-reported early life parental abuse, current BAS personality traits, and antisocial behaviors. Through structural equation models, our results suggest there is a positive association between early life parental abuse and antisocial behaviors, as well as a negative association with BAS personality traits (R2 = 37%). These results contribute to the current literature by suggesting that personality and environmental variables can predict adolescent antisocial behaviors. Future studies should explore the interplay between these variables longitudinally and investigate both risk and protective factors, as well as negative and positive outcomes.

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Aggressive and antisocial behaviors are detrimental to society and constitute major challenges in forensic mental health settings, yet the associated neural circuitry remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated differences in aggressive and antisocial behaviors between healthy controls (n = 20) and violent mentally disordered offenders (MDOs; n = 26), and examined associations between aggressive and antisocial behaviors, behavioral inhibitory control, and neurophysiological activity across the whole sample (n = 46). Event-related potentials were obtained using EEG while participants completed a Go/NoGo response inhibition task, and aggressive and antisocial behaviors were assessed with the Life History of Aggression (LHA) instrument. Using a robust Bayesian linear regression approach, we found that MDOs scored substantially higher than healthy controls on LHA Aggression and Antisocial subscales. Using the whole sample and after adjusting for age, we found that scores on the LHA Aggression and Antisocial subscales were robustly associated with longer NoGo P3 latency, and less robustly with longer NoGo N2 latency. Post-hoc analyzes suggested that healthy controls and MDOs exhibited similar associations. With several limitations in mind, we suggest that prolonged NoGo P3 latency, reflecting decreased neural efficiency during the later stages of conflict monitoring or outcome evaluation, is a potential neurobehavioral correlate of aggressive and antisocial behaviors.

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We examined relationships between the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) clinical scales (e.g., Somatic Complaints [SOM]) and subscales (e.g., Conversion [SOM-C]) with patient- and therapist-rated alliance early in treatment (third or fourth session). We also replicated and extended findings from a previous study examining PAI treatment scales (Treatment Rejection, Treatment Process Index) and early session therapist-rated alliance. We used PAI protocols from a clinical outpatient sample (N = 84). Data were analyzed using stepwise linear regressions. Results suggest that patients who report lower early session alliance also report more antisocial features (ß = -.219, p = .050, f2 = 0.05) specifically more antisocial behaviors (ß = -.315, p = .004, f2 = 0.11). Additionally, therapists report higher early session alliance with patients who report more anxiety-related disorders (ß = .274, p = .012, f2 = 0.08), specifically traumatic stress (ß = .325, p = .003, f2 = 0.12). No significant relationships were found between patient- or therapist-rated alliance and Treatment Rejection and Treatment Process Index, consistent with prior findings. Clinical implications are discussed.

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What drives entrepreneurs to engage in antisocial economic behaviors? Without dismissing entrepreneurs' agency in their decision-making processes, our study aims to answer this question by proposing that antisocial economic behaviors are a dysfunctional coping mechanism to reduce the psychological tension that entrepreneurs face in their day-to-day activities. Further, given the overlap between the male gender role stereotype and both leader and entrepreneur role stereotypes, this psychological tension should be stronger in female entrepreneurs (or any person who identifies with the female gender role). We argue that besides the well-established female gender role - leader role incongruence, female entrepreneurs also suffer a female gender role - entrepreneur role incongruence. Thus, we predicted that men (or those identifying with the male gender role) or entrepreneurs (regardless of their gender identity) that embrace these roles stereotypes to an extreme, are more likely to engage in antisocial economic behaviors. In this context, the term antisocial economic behaviors refers to cheating or trying to harm competitors' businesses. Finally, we predicted that embracing an authentic leadership style might mitigate this effect. We tested our predictions in two laboratory studies (Phase 1 and 2). For Phase 1 we recruited a sample of French Business school students (N = 82). For Phase 2 we recruited a sample of Costa Rican male and female entrepreneurs, using male and female managers as reference groups (N = 64). Our results show that authentic leadership reduced the likelihood of entrepreneurs and men of engaging in antisocial economic behaviors such as trying to harm one's competition or seeking an unfair advantage.

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The modeling and reinforcement of efficacy beliefs and mental toughness in sport continue to generate significant curiosity in the sport psychology research. Investigations into how these behaviors interact and, in the process, affect the development of prosocial and antisocial behaviors among youth athletes are relatively few. This is despite growing evidence of strong associations between self-efficacy beliefs, mental toughness, and various kinds of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors in sport. Therefore, this study sought to examine if mental toughness mediates the relationship between self-efficacy and prosocial/antisocial behaviors in Botswana youth athletes. The study also examined if data from Botswana fit the proposed factor structure of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire, the Self-efficacy Scale, and the Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior in Sport scale. A total of 158 male (n = 81) and female (n = 77) junior secondary school and senior secondary school (middle and high school) athletes aged 14-20 years old enrolled in Centers for Sport Excellence in Botswana participated in the study. Results showed support for the factor structure of the study's measurement tools. The constancy dimension of mental toughness mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and prosocial/antisocial behavior to teammate and opponent. These findings have implications for research and practice aimed at enhancing efficacy beliefs, mental toughness, and positive youth sport experiences. Contextual relevance of this line of research and measurement tools are discussed.

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Violence in schools is a global issue. Approximately 32% of Mexican students have experienced some form of violence in the school setting in their lives. Previous research has tended to focus on the causes of violence and antisocial behaviors in offenders or adolescent samples and has found evidence to suggest the underlying role of environmental and personal factors. The present study investigates the effect of positive school environment and agreeableness as protective factors against antisocial behaviors in a sample of undergraduate and graduate students (n = 304) from northwestern Mexico. Our results demonstrate that a positive school environment has a negative effect on antisocial behaviors via mood and anxiety disorders as well as in interaction with agreeableness, suggesting an interplay between personality and environment. These findings can provide some basis for the development of university programs aimed at fostering positive environments that promote student mental health and protect against antisocial behaviors.

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Resumo Contar com uma medida psicometricamente adequada para a avaliação dos comportamentos moralmente relevantes de atletas é importante para fomentar pesquisas e viabilizar estratégias de intervenção eficazes. O objetivo da presente pesquisa foi estimar propriedades psicométricas da Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Sport Scale (PABSS) para o contexto brasileiro. A amostra foi composta por 360 atletas de ambos os sexos (idade média 16.1 ± 3.61; 64.7 % homens). A análise fatorial exploratória indicou a pertinência da estrutura composta por quatro fatores: (1) comportamento pró-social direcionado aos companheiros de equipe (CPC); (2) comportamento pró-social direcionado aos adversários (CPA); (3) comportamento antissocial direcionado aos companheiros de equipe (CAC); (4) comportamento antissocial direcionado aos adversários (CAA), explicando conjuntamente 66.1 % da variância total, o que corrobora a hipótese teórica. Adicionalmente, a análise fatorial semiconfirmatória apresentou comprovação do modelo composto por quatro fatores: [(X1 = 126.685, gl = 116. p = .234; X2/gl = 1.09; CFI = 0.998 (IC 95 % = 0.997-0.999); GFI = 0.991 (IC 95 % = 0.997- 0.999); RMSEA = 0.018 (IC 95 °% = 0.016-0.020)]. Todos os fatores apresentaram índices desejáveis de consistência interna, alfa de Cronbach superiores a .78 e ômega de Mcdonald superiores a .88. Também foram observadas as associações entre comportamento moral e valores no esporte. Conclui-se que a versão brasileira da PABSS reúne evidências psicométricas adequadas, podendo ser utilizada em estudos futuros.

Resumen Contar con una medida psicométrica apropiada para evaluar los comportamientos moralmente relevantes de los atletas es importante para fomentar la investigación y permitir estrategias de intervención efectivas. El objetivo de esta investigación fue estimar las propiedades psicométricas de la Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior Sport Scale (PABSS) para el contexto brasileño. La muestra consistió en 360 atletas de ambos sexos (promedio de edad 16.1 ± 3.61; 64.7 % hombres). El análisis factorial exploratorio indicó la relevancia de la estructura que consta de cuatro factores: (1) Comportamiento prosocial dirigido a compañeros de equipo (CPC); (2) Comportamiento prosocial dirigido a oponentes (CPA); (3) Comportamiento antisocial dirigido a compañeros de equipo (CAC); (4) Comportamiento antisocial dirigido a oponentes (CAA), explicando conjuntamente el 66.1 % de la varianza total, lo que corrobora la hipótesis teórica. Además, el análisis factorial semiconfirmatorio mostró pruebas del modelo compuesto por cuatro factores: [(X2 = 126.685, gl = 116, p = .234; X2/gl = 1.09; CFI = 0.99 (IC 95% = 0.997-0.999); GFI = 0.99 (IC 95 % = 0.997-0.999); RMSEA = 0.018 (IC 95 % = 0.016-0.020)]. Todos los factores tenían índices de consistencia interna alfa de Cronbach deseables mayores a 0.78 y omega de McDonald mayores a 0.88. También se observaron asociaciones entre el comportamiento moral y los valores en el deporte. En conclusión, la versión brasileña del PABSS reúne evidencia psicométrica adecuada y puede ser utilizada en futuros estudios.

Abstract Having an appropriate psychometric measure for assessing the morally relevant behaviors of athletes is important to encourage research and enable effective intervention strategies. The aim of this research was to verify the psychometric properties of the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviors Sport Scale (PABSS) for the Brazilian context. The sample consisted of 360 athletes of both sexes (average age 16.1±3.61; 64.7% men). The exploratory factorial analysis indicated the adequacy of the structure comprising four factors: 1) Prosocial behavior directed to teammates (CPC) 2) Prosocial behavior directed to opponents (CPA); (3) Anti-social behavior directed to teammates (CAC); (4) Anti-social behavior directed to opponents (CAA), which jointly explains 66.1% of the total variance, thus corroborating the theoretical hypothesis. In addition, Semi-confirmatory Factor Analysis showed evidence of the four-factor model: [(X2= 126.685, gl= 116, p = .234; X2/gl= 1.09; CFI= 0.99 (IC 95%= 0.997-0.999); GFI= 0.99 (IC 95% = 0.997- 0.999); RMSEA= 0.018 (IC 95%= 0.016-0.020)]. All factors had desirable internal consistency indexes of Cronbach's alpha greater than 0.78 and McDonald's Omega greater than 0.80. Associations between moral behavior and values in sports were also observed. In conclusion, the Brazilian version of the PABSS presented adequate psychometric evidence and can be used in future studies.

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OBJECTIVE: To explore the factors affecting unsafe antisocial behaviors of drivers in the context of Iran. METHODS: The interviews were conducted from June to November 2019. A number of 19 participants were selected using purposive sampling method. The data were collected using face to face in-depth semi-structured interviews. Content analysis using Granheim's approach was applied for data analysis. RESULTS: Seven categories and 14 sub-categories were extracted from the data. The categories included cultural factors, educational and training factors, laws, imitating, substance abuse, awareness and attitude, and psychological problems. CONCLUSION: Based on the findings, various cultural, legal, educational, individual and psychological factors affect the unsafe antisocial behavior in driving. Seemingly, such behaviors could increase the chance of death or injury caused by road traffic crashes among the road users and affect social welfare of the citizens and road user's safety.

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PURPOSE: Adolescent mental ill-health is a growing concern. There is little understanding of changes over time in the associations between mental health and health-related behaviors and outcomes (such as substance use, antisocial behavior, and obesity). We investigate whether the associations between different health and health-related outcomes in adolescence are changing over time in two recent cohorts of adolescents born 10 years apart. METHODS: Data from two UK birth cohort studies, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC, born 1991-92, N = 5,627, 50.7% female) and Millennium Cohort Study (MCS, born 2000-2, N = 11,318, 50.6% female) at age 14 are analyzed. The health outcomes of focus are depressive symptoms, substance use (alcohol, smoking, cannabis, and other drugs), antisocial behaviors (assault, graffiti, vandalism, shoplifting and rowdy behavior), weight (body mass index [BMI]), weight perception (perceive self as overweight), and sexual activity (had sexual intercourse). Regression analyses are conducted to examine associations between these variables with cohort as a moderator to examine cohort differences. RESULTS: The directions of associations between mental-health and health-related behaviors (e.g., smoking) are similar over time; however, their strength across the distribution has changed. While smoking and alcohol use behaviors are decreasing in adolescents, those that endorse these behaviors in 2015 are more likely to have co-occurring mental ill-health than those born in 2005. Similarly, higher BMI is more strongly associated with depressive symptoms in 2015 compared to 2005. CONCLUSIONS: Adverse health-related outcomes such as greater substance use, mental health difficulties, and higher BMI appear to be more likely to cluster together in the more recent cohort, with implications for public health planning, service provision, and lifelong disease burden.

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This study examined the predictive effects of 15 positive youth development (PYD) attributes and parenting behavior on adolescent social networking addiction (SNA) in a representative sample of Hong Kong students. In total, 1,896 Hong Kong Secondary 1 students from 20 randomly selected schools (age = 13.19 ± 0.52 years) completed the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale, and the Chinese Parenting Behavior Scale. Of the participants, 11.4% could be classified as being addicted to Social Networking Sites (SNSs). Regression analyses showed that students' emotional competence (ß = -0.09; p < 0.01), behavioral competence (ß = -0.12; p < 0.001), beliefs in the future (ß = -0.10; p < 0.01), and spirituality (ß = -0.08; p < 0.01) were negatively associated with SNA, while social competence (ß = 0.07; p < 0.05) and positive identity (ß = 0.13; p < 0.001) were positively related to SNA. Paternal and maternal responsiveness showed indirect effects on students' SNA through the full mediation of PYD attributes. Specific PYD attributes and positive parenting behavior may serve as important protective factors against the development of SNA among Hong Kong adolescents.

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In the past decade, there has been a growing interest in examining resting-state functional connectivity deficits in subjects with conduct and antisocial personality disorder. Through meta-analyses and literature reviews, extensive work has been done to characterize their abnormalities in brain activation during a wide range of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) tasks. However, there is currently no meta-analytical evidence regarding neural connectivity patterns during resting-state fMRI. Therefore, we conducted a coordinate-based meta-analysis of resting-state fMRI studies on individuals exhibiting antisocial behaviors. Of the retrieved studies, 18 used a seed-based connectivity approach (513 cases v. 488 controls), 20 employed a non-seed-based approach (453 cases v. 460 controls) and 20 included a correlational analysis between the severity of antisocial behaviors and connectivity patterns (3462 subjects). Meta-analysis on seed-based studies revealed significant connectivity deficits in the amygdala, middle cingulate cortex, ventral posterior cingulate cortex-precuneus, ventromedial and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and superior parietal lobule. Additionally, non-seed-based meta-analysis showed increased connectivity in the ventral posterior cingulate cortex and decreased connectivity in the parietal operculum, calcarine cortex, and cuneus. Finally, we found meta-analytical evidence for negative relationship between the severity of antisocial behaviors and connectivity with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Functional characterization and meta-analytical connectivity modeling indicated that these findings overlapped with socio-affective and attentional processes. This further underscores the importance of these functions in the pathophysiology of conduct and antisocial personality disorders.

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The current study examined and compared the relative influence of ecological factors on youth antisocial behaviors (i.e., aggression and rule-breaking) using longitudinal data while assessing the moderating effect of youth attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) diagnosis. The study used the fifth and sixth wave of data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 2595; mean age = 9.26 at wave five) for the analysis. Multivariate models show that youth ADHD, physically and psychologically abusive parenting, peer victimization, and community cohesion were important predictors of youth antisocial behaviors. Furthermore, youth ADHD diagnosis moderated some associations between the ecological factors and antisocial behaviors, suggesting that youth with and without ADHD may respond to some ecological contexts differently regarding the concerning behaviors. The findings imply that interventions targeting youth antisocial behaviors should involve collaboration across systems and coordination across programs to tackle a multilayered ecological context, especially when youth with ADHD are involved.

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As the identification and targeting of salient risk factors for adolescent substance use become more widely used globally, an essential question arises as to whether U.S.-based cut points in the distributions of these risk factors that identify "high" risk can be used validly in other countries as well. This study examined proportions of youth at "high" risk using different empirically derived cut points in the distributions of 18 measured risk factors. Data were obtained from large-scale samples of adolescents in Colombia and the United States. Results indicated that significant (p < 0.05) differences in the proportions of "high" risk youth were found in 38.9% of risk factors for 6th graders, 61.1% for 8th graders, and 66.6% for 10th graders. Colombian-based cut points for determining the proportion of Colombian youth at "high" risk were preferable to U.S.-based cut points in almost all comparisons that exhibited a significant difference. Our findings suggest that observed differences were related to the type of risk factor (e.g., drug specific vs. non-drug specific). Findings from this study demonstrate the need for collecting large-scale national data on risk factors for adolescent substance use and developing country-specific cut points based on the distributions of these measures to avoid misidentification of youth at "high" risk.

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