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BACKGROUND: The plant hormone auxin plays a crucial role in regulating important functions in strawberry fruit development. Although a few studies have described the complex auxin biosynthetic and signaling pathway in wild diploid strawberry (Fragaria vesca), the molecular mechanisms underlying auxin biosynthesis and crosstalk in octoploid strawberry fruit development are not fully characterized. To address this knowledge gap, comprehensive transcriptomic analyses were conducted at different stages of fruit development and compared between the achene and receptacle to identify developmentally regulated auxin biosynthetic genes and transcription factors during the fruit ripening process. Similar to wild diploid strawberry, octoploid strawberry accumulates high levels of auxin in achene compared to receptacle. RESULTS: Genes involved in auxin biosynthesis and conjugation, such as Tryptophan Aminotransferase of Arabidopsis (TAAs), YUCCA (YUCs), and Gretchen Hagen 3 (GH3s), were found to be primarily expressed in the achene, with low expression in the receptacle. Interestingly, several genes involved in auxin transport and signaling like Pin-Formed (PINs), Auxin/Indole-3-Acetic Acid Proteins (Aux/IAAs), Transport Inhibitor Response 1 / Auxin-Signaling F-Box (TIR/AFBs) and Auxin Response Factor (ARFs) were more abundantly expressed in the receptacle. Moreover, by examining DEGs and their transcriptional profiles across all six developmental stages, we identified key auxin-related genes co-clustered with transcription factors from the NAM-ATAF1,2-CUC2/ WRKYGQK motif (NAC/WYKY), Heat Shock Transcription Factor and Heat Shock Proteins (HSF/HSP), APETALA2/Ethylene Responsive Factor (AP2/ERF) and MYB transcription factor groups. CONCLUSIONS: These results elucidate the complex regulatory network of auxin biosynthesis and its intricate crosstalk within the achene and receptacle, enriching our understanding of fruit development in octoploid strawberries.

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The genus Pulicaria Gaertn. belongs to the tribe Inuleae Cass. and it is represented by six species P. arabica (L.) Cass., P. armena Boiss. & Kotschy ex Boiss., P. dysenterica (L.) Gaertn., P. odora (L.) Rchb., P. sicula (L.) Moris, and P. vulgaris Gaertn. in Turkiye. P. armena is endemic to the country. In this study, fruit macro-micromorphological characteristics of six Pulicaria species from Turkiye were demonstrated using stereo-microscope and scanning electron microscopy. The colors of the achenes range from light-brown to brown. The shapes are obovate to elliptic in outline. The pappus is persistent in all studied species, with two rows of pappus hairs except in P. sicula. Its pappus composed of one row of capillary bristles. Others have the outer row developing into a small crown and the inner row consisting of capillary bristles. All taxa have glandular trichomes, except for P. arabica. An identification key is also provided to differentiate between Pulicaria species. Fruit features provide a useful tool for differentiating the examined species. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Achene macro-micromorphology of Pulicaria species was studied via LM and SEM. A diagnostic key based on achene features was created for Pulicaria species. Achene features provide a useful tool for differentiating the examined species.

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Tartary buckwheat, celebrated as the "king of grains" for its flavonoid and phenolic acid richness, has health-promoting properties. Despite significant morphological and metabolic variations in mature achenes, research on their developmental process is limited. Utilizing Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and atmospheric pressure matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging, we conducted spatial-temporal metabolomics on two cultivars during achene development. Metabolic profiles including 17 phenolic acids and 83 flavonoids are influenced by both varietal distinctions and developmental intricacies. Notably, flavonols, as major flavonoids, accumulated with achene ripening and showed a tissue-specific distribution. Specifically, flavonol glycosides and aglycones concentrated in the embryo, while methylated flavonols and procyanidins in the hull. Black achenes at the green achene stage have higher bioactive compounds and enhanced antioxidant capacity. These findings provide insights into spatial and temporal characteristics of metabolites in Tartary buckwheat achenes and serve as a theoretical guide for selecting optimal resources for food production.

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Due to the expanding global population and environmental concerns about meat production from livestock, there is a great demand for alternative ingredients. Beech achene (BA) and sessile oak acorn (SOA) were recently proposed as protein- and carbohydrate-rich novel food ingredients. This study used their roasted kernels to develop and characterize four formulations of spreadable vegetable paste (with 10% BAK, 10% SOAK, 5% SOAK + 5% BAK, and control-just with roasted sunflower kernel). The substitution of sunflower kernel with 10% BAK caused a decrease in the energy value of vegetable paste, while 10% SOAK and 5% SOAK + 5% BAK, an increase. Syneresis was higher in formulations with forest ingredients, most notably in those containing BAK. The SOAK also caused a decrease in the pH of vegetable pastes that included it. All forest formulations had a large total colour difference compared to the control sample, driven by its intensity decrease (less in that with BAK than in the other two). The acceptance rate was reasonable for all formulations, although the overall score was significantly lower (slightly liked) in the vegetable paste formulated only with BAK than in the others (moderately liked); thus, the consumer's purchase intention too (only 4.9% for that with 10% SOAK). Formulation with 10% BAK had a higher hardness, adhesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness than the others, while that with the 5% SOAK and 5% BAK mixture showed the most robust network structure. In conclusion, BA and SOA kernels are suitable for manufacturing plant-based alternatives to pâté if used in proper concentrations. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05852-7.

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Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring element that is found in soil, water, and rocks. However, it can also be released into the environment through human activities. Arsenic is considered an environmental hazard because it is toxic to humans and animals and can cause serious health problems. Additionally, As-contaminated soil can limit plant growth and reduce crop yields, leading to economic losses for farmers. So, decreasing metal/metalloid solubility in soil by synthetic and organic amendments leads to better crop productivity on contaminated soils. The current study aimed to evaluate farmyard manure (FYM)-mediated changes in soil arsenic (As) behavior, and subsequent effects on achene yield of sunflower. Treatment plan comprised of two As levels, i.e., As-60 (60 mg kg-1) and As-120 (120 mg kg-1), four FYM levels (0, 20, 35, and 50 g kg-1), three textural types (sandy, loamy and clayey), and replicated thrice. Seven As fractions including water soluble-As (WS-As), labile-As (L-As), calcium-bound As (Ca-As), aluminum-bound As (Al-As), iron-bound As (Fe-As), organic-matter-bound As (OM-As), and residual-As (R-As) were determined which differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) with FYM and soil texture. FYM supplementation decreased WS-As, L-As, Ca-As, and Al-As while increased Fe-As, OM-As, and R-As. The immobilizing effect of FYM increased with increasing its rate of application, and maximum effect was found in clayey soil. As speciation in soil also significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected by FYM and soil texture, with a reduction in arsenate while increase in arsenite, mono-methyl arsenate, and di-methyl arsenate with increasing the rate of FYM supplementation. Bioaccumulation factor reduced with FYM addition, and highest reduction of 38.65 and 42.13% in sandy, 34.24 and 36.26% in loamy while 29.16 and 35.10% in clayey soils at As-60 and As-120, respectively, by 50 g kg-1 FYM compared with respective As treatments without FYM. As accumulation in plant parts was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced by FYM with the subsequent improvement in achene yield.

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KEY MESSAGE: The Cyperaceae fruit consistency depends on the mesocarp. Seed structure is diverse and related to the evolutionary history of their species. A new storage tissue is described for Cyperaceae. Anatomy and histochemistry of Cyperaceae fruits (including seeds) are poorly known due to their hard, isolating tissues that prevent anatomical techniques. We performed the first, most comprehensive structural diversity characterisation of fruit and seed in Cyperaceae, accompanied by an unprecedented histochemical characterisation of seeds for this family. We analysed fruits of 29 species, included in 19 genera and 12 tribes within the subfamilies Cyperoideae and Mapanioideae, using light microscopy. Cyperaceae fruits have a pericarp with a one-cell-layered exocarp and endocarp, and a multi-cell-layered mesocarp. The mesocarp of the Mapanioideae has a spongy-fleshy outer region and a hard inner region. The mesocarp of the Cyperoideae has only a hard region. The pericarp is free from the seed coat. Cyperaceae seeds have a three-layered seed coat, an embryo with haustorial function of its scutellum, and two storage tissues: the endosperm and a putative perisperm. Nine seed morphotypes and four seed subtypes were observed among the studied species. Our results suggested that the fruit consistency is determined by the mesocarp. Both the terms "nut" and "achene" should be accepted to refer to the dry fruit of the Cyperaceae until a widely accepted fruit classification for angiosperms is proposed. The Cyperaceae seed structural diversity is high and related to the evolutionary history of the species. The "perisperm" is a new tissue proposed for sedge seeds, and is here characterized for the first time. The seed coat has a different structure than the one described so far for the family.

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The present study attempts to characterise Fagaceae kernels as a promising source of nutritional compounds for potential use as novel food ingredients. Thus, the proximate and mineral composition of some kernels (beech achene-BA, sessile oak acorn-SOA, turkey oak acorn-TOA, and red oak acorn-ROA), total phenolic content, individual polyphenols, and cytotoxicity of their aqueous extracts, respectively, the fatty acid composition of kernel oils were investigated using physicochemical and analytical techniques. Results revealed that BAK is rich in lipid and protein, OAKs in carbohydrates. All tested kernels contain high oleic-linoleic acid oils. BAK is abundant in phenolic acids, OAKs in hydrolysable tannins. Only BA and SOA kernels exert cytotoxicity against human fibroblasts. In all kernels, macroelements are dominated by K and microelements by Cu, Mn, and Fe. In conclusion, BA and OA kernels could be alternatively used as protein-rich, respectively, starch-rich ingredients in food.

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Arnica montana L. is a very important medicinal plant and simultaneously a European endemic endangered plant species. The morphological features and details of seed development and achene variability are poorly recognized. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of the achene position in the infructescence and the location of the inflorescence on the plant on the (i) morphological characteristics and germination ability of achenes, and (ii) recruitment of seedlings and their biometric features. Infructescences containing fully ripe achenes were randomly collected from A. montana individuals for the measurements and the germination experiment. Scanning electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and light microscopy were used for characterization of flowers and achenes. The morphological traits of achenes and reproductive characteristics of A. montana were determined by the position of the achenes in the infructescence and the location of the inflorescence on the plant. The surface of arnica achenes is equipped with non-glandular and glandular trichomes, which is very rarely presented in species of the family Asteraceae. It is possible that the fluid-containing glandular trichomes are a source of essential oils. The peripherally located achenes were longer, thinner, and lighter. They were characterized by lower embryo weight, lower embryo/achene weight ratio, and lower germination capacity in comparison to the centrally located ones. The results presented in this article fill the gap in the knowledge of the morphology of achenes and the biology of the species, and provide information that can help in breeding programs, active protection, and field cultivation.

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In strawberries, fruit set is considered as the transition from the quiescent ovary to a rapidly growing fruit. Auxin, which is produced from the fertilized ovule in the achenes, plays a key role in promoting the enlargement of receptacles. However, detailed regulatory mechanisms for fruit set and the mutual regulation between achenes and receptacles are largely unknown. In this study, we found that pollination promoted fruit development (both achene and receptacle), which could be stimulated by exogenous auxin treatment. Interestingly, auxin was highly accumulated in achenes, but not in receptacles, after pollination. Further transcriptome analysis showed that only a small portion of the differentially expressed genes induced by pollination overlapped with those by exogenous auxin treatment. Auxin, but not pollination, was able to activate the expression of growth-related genes, especially in receptacles, which resulted in fast growth. Meanwhile, those genes involved in the pathways of other hormones, such as GA and cytokinin, were also regulated by exogenous auxin treatment, but not pollination. This suggested that pollination was not able to activate auxin responses in receptacles but produced auxin in fertilized achenes, and then auxin might be able to transport or transduce from achenes to receptacles and promote fast fruit growth at the early stage of fruit initiation. Our work revealed a potential coordination between achenes and receptacles during fruit set, and auxin might be a key coordinator.

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Sunflower is suitable for family farmers from Northeast Brazil who are benefited by the production of grain and oil and is adequate for crop rotation and for honey production. The need for irrigation in this region leads to the realization of this study for evaluating the production components of four sunflower genotypes irrigated with different levels of water salinity. The study was carried out in the municipality of Remigio, Paraíba, Brazil, using a randomized block with split plots experimental design in a 5 x 4 factorial arrangement. Treatments consisted of five electrical conductivity levels of the irrigation water at 25 °C (L1 - 0.14 (reservoir water), L2 - 1.50, L3 - 2.50, L4 - 3.50, and L5 - 4.50 dS m- 1), and four sunflower genotypes (C1 - Embrapa 122-V2000, C2 - Olisun 03, C3 - AG 963, and C4 - Multissol) with three replicates. The irrigation water salinity levels tested did not influence the variables studied. Different values of the variables among sunflower genotypes were due to characteristics inherent to each genotype. Sunflower genotype Olisun 03 presented the highest oil content, while the lowest content was observed in Multissol.

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In the present work, we study the ovule, seed, and fruit development in six Bulbostylis species in order to characterize the genus in a comparative approach and to identify the characteristics that can be used in taxonomy and phylogeny. Flowers and fruits at different developmental stages were analyzed using LM and SEM after processing according to standard techniques. The species studied have the following: anatropous and bitegmic ovules, weak crassinucellar ovules, obturator of integumentary origin, monosporic embryo sac of the Polygonum type, nuclear endosperm, hypostase formation, seed coat formed by tanniferous endotegmen and exotesta, and Bulbostylis-type embryo. On the other hand, the pericarp development constitutes the main variation within Bulbostylis since the cells of the exocarp may or may not present starch grains, and their inner periclinal walls may be slightly or deeply concave depending on the degree of development of the mesocarp sclereids. In a taxonomic context, the results herein obtained are in conflict with studies which suggest infrageneric groupings based on fruit micromorphology, and also with the relationship among the Bulbostylis species based on molecular analysis. This work contributes to a better understanding of the reproductive anatomy and embryology in Bulbostylis, and reveals the first insights about the origin of multiple embryos in Cyperaceae. Given the frequent presence of polyembryony in Bulbostylis, and the poor mention of this condition in the family, this work highlights an aspect in the anatomy of Cyperaceae that must be re-explored.

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Over the last two centuries, breeders have drastically modified the fruit quality of strawberries through artificial selection. However, there remains significant variation in quality across germplasm with scope for further improvements to be made. We reported extensive phenotyping of fruit quality and yield traits in a multi-parental strawberry population to allow genomic prediction and quantitative trait nucleotide (QTN) identification, thereby enabling the description of genetic architecture to inform the efficacy of implementing advanced breeding strategies. A negative relationship (r = -0.21) between total soluble sugar content and class one yield was identified, indicating a trade-off between these two essential traits. This result highlighted an established dilemma for strawberry breeders and a need to uncouple the relationship, particularly under June-bearing, protected production systems comparable to this study. A large effect of quantitative trait nucleotide was associated with perceived acidity and pH whereas multiple loci were associated with firmness. Therefore, we recommended the implementation of both marker assisted selection (MAS) and genomic prediction to capture the observed variation respectively. Furthermore, we identified a large effect locus associated with a 10% increase in the number of class one fruit and a further 10 QTN which, when combined, are associated with a 27% increase in the number of marketable strawberries. Ultimately, our results suggested that the best method to improve strawberry yield is through selecting parental lines based upon the number of marketable fruits produced per plant. Not only were strawberry number metrics less influenced by environmental fluctuations, but they had a larger additive genetic component when compared with mass traits. As such, selecting using "number" traits should lead to faster genetic gain.

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Seeds are major vehicles of propagation and dispersal in plants. A number of transcription factors, including APETALA2 (AP2), play crucial roles during the seed development process in various plant species. However, genes essential for seed development and the regulatory networks that operate during seed development remain unclear in lettuce. Here, we identified a lettuce AP2 (LsAP2) gene that was highly expressed during the early stages of seed development. LsAP2 knockout plants obtained by the CRISPR/Cas9 system were used to explore the biological function of LsAP2. Compared with the wild type, the seeds of Lsap2 mutant plants were longer and narrower, and developed an extended tip at the seed top. After further investigating the structural characteristics of the seeds of Lsap2 mutant plants, we proposed a new function of LsAP2 in seed dispersal. Moreover, we identified several interactors of LsAP2. Our results showed that LsAP2 directly interacted with the lettuce homolog of BREVIPEDICELLUS (LsBP) and promoted the expression of LsBP. Transcriptome analysis revealed that LsAP2 might also be involved in brassinosteroid biosynthesis and signaling pathways. Taken together, our data indicate that LsAP2 has a significant function in regulating seed shape in lettuce.

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The genus Taraxacum is one of the largest and taxonomically most complicated apomictic genera. Currently, it is considered to consist of over 2800 species placed within 60 sections. Due to the large number of species, and their uniform morphological design and plasticity of leaves, the identification of plants at the species level is challenging even for specialists. This problem significantly hinders the study of their properties and the rational use of these valuable medicinal and nutritional plants. This paper presents the results of research on the morphology and micromorphology of achenes of 28 Taraxacum species of sect. Palustria and for comparison one species per section of: Erythrosperma, Naevosa, Piesis, and Taraxacum. The achenes were measured with a stereoscopic microscope and a biometric program, and micromorphological studies were performed by scanning electron microscopy. It has been shown that traits associated with achene morphology and micromorphology have a high diagnostic value, allowing us to distinguish sections as well as species within the sect. Palustria. Based on the examined achene features, a dichotomous key for determining the studied species was constructed.

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Clematis, a widely distributed genus in Ranunculaceae, is one of the most difficult groups of taxa in the family from a taxonomic point of view. A comprehensive study on achene morphology and the anatomy of 19 taxa of Clematis from Korea was carried out using scanning electron and light microscopy to evaluate the taxonomic significance of achene characters. Clematis achenes are elliptical, obovate or fusiform in shape, light yellow or brown to black in color and completely or sparsely covered with hairs. The permanent style is elongated and plumose in all the studied taxa except C. brachyura. We found that the size, indument, permanent style, surface sculpture, shape in cross-section, and nature and thickness of the exocarp, and endocarp were valuable achene features for species delimitation and may contribute to the unraveling of the taxonomic problems in the genus Clematis. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the quantitative achene variables among the species were highly significant (p < 0.001). Principal component analyses based on seven quantitative characters and UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean) analysis based on seven quantitative and 18 qualitative characters also signify the utility of achene features for taxonomic discriminations of the Clematis taxa within the genus. Similar to other morphological characters in the genus Clematis, achene morphological and anatomical characters with the limited taxonomic value alone cannot be expected to resolve the infrageneric relationships but certain achene features combined with other morphological features could be useful as an alternative means of determining the infrageneric relationships within the genus.

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Tocochromanols are a group of lipid-soluble antioxidants that include tocopherols, tocotrienols and plastochromanol-8. Here, we examined a putative differential accumulation of tocochromanols in photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic tissues (including leaves and whole fruits) of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa cv. Albion) plants and evaluated their endogenous variations in response to a reiterated water deficit during a vegetative (non-productive) and a fruiting (productive) period. In addition, we evaluated the concentration of tocochromanols in achenes (true fruits) and flesh of strawberries (whole fruits) at the white and full-red stages both under optimal and stress conditions. Results showed that leaves mainly accumulated α-tocopherol, with plastochromanol-8 and γ-tocopherol being present at low amounts. In contrast, whole fruits did not accumulate plastochromanol-8, γ-tocopherol being the major tocochromanol in the achenes (true fruit) and α-tocopherol in the flesh. While α-tocopherol content in leaves increased up to seven-fold after 12 weeks of stress during the fruiting period, it kept unaltered during the vegetative period. Neither plastochromanol-8 nor γ-tocopherol contents increased in leaves of stressed plants. During the fruiting period, γ-tocopherol content increased in whole fruits of stressed plants (most of it being accumulated in the achenes). Among the compounds examined, the flesh of strawberries accumulated α-tocopherol only, both at the white and full-red stages. It is concluded that (i) α-tocopherol is the major tocochromanol in leaves, while γ-tocopherol is the major tocochromanol in achenes (ii) reiterated water deficit promotes the accumulation of α-tocopherol in leaves and γ-tocopherol in fruits, (iii) α-tocopherol not only accumulates in photosynthetic tissues (leaves and whole fruits at green stages), but also in non-photosynthetic tissues (flesh of whole fruits at the white and full-red stages), and (iv) achenes (true fruits) of strawberry plants are an extraordinary rich source of tocopherols.

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This study focuses on the macro-micromorphological achene characteristics of 12 species of the genera Crupina, Jurinea, and Klasea (Asteraceae) using light microscopy and the scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The morphological characteristics of the achenes, including shape, size, color, and surface pattern of achene, and hair structure, length, and color of pappus are studied. The results show that the achene length is between 3 and 8 mm, and its width is between 1 and 4 mm. Pappus is 4-15 mm long and persistent for seven species. SEM analysis shows four different achene surface patterns for the studied species: smooth, undulate, smooth-undulate, and undulate-ruminate. The genus Crupina has darkly colored achenes with yellow, dense firm hairs, and the achene surface pattern is smooth. Triangular and sulcate achenes seem to characteristic for the genus Jurinea. The genus Klasea distinguished from the remaining species studied with its straw-colored and deciduous pappus. Macro-micromorphological characteristics provide effective tools for both generic and intrageneric differentiation for the studied species.

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Growth, development, and economic yield of agricultural crops rely on moisture, temperature, light, and carbon dioxide concentration. However, the amount of these parameters is varying with time due to climate change. Climate change is factual and ongoing so, first principle of agronomy should be to identify climate change potential impacts and adaptation measures to manage the susceptibilities of agricultural sector. Crop models have ability to predict the crop's yield under changing climatic conditions. We used OILCROP-SUN model to simulate the influence of elevated temperature and CO2 on crop growth duration, maximum leaf area index (LAI), total dry matter (TDM), and achene yield of sunflower under semi-arid conditions of Pakistan (Faisalabad, Punjab). The model was calibrated and validated with the experimental data of 2012 and 2013, respectively. The simulation results showed that phenological events of sunflower were not changed at higher concentration of CO2 (430 and 550 ppm). However LAI, achene yield, and TDM increased by 0.24, 2.41, and 4.67% at 430 ppm and by 0.48, 3.09, and 9.87% at 550 ppm, respectively. Increased temperature (1 and 2 °C) reduced the sunflower duration to remain green that finally led to less LAI, achene yield, and TDM as compared to present conditions. However, the drastic effects of increased temperature on sunflower were reduced to some extent at 550 ppm CO2 concentration. Evaluation of different adaptation options revealed that 21 days earlier (as compared to current sowing date) planting of sunflower crop with increased plant population (83,333 plants ha-1) could reduce the yield losses due to climate change. Flowering is the most critical stage of sunflower to water scarcity. We recommended skipping second irrigation or 10% (337.5 mm) less irrigation water application to conserve moisture under possible water scarce conditions of 2025 and 2050.

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Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is a major oilseed crop grown for its edible oil across the globe including Pakistan. In Pakistan, the production of edible oil is less than the required quantity; the situation is being worsened with the increasing population. Thus, there is dire need to grow those sunflower genotypes which perform better under a given set of agronomic practices. In this 2-year study, we compared four sunflower genotypes, viz., Armoni, Kundi, Sinji, and S-278 for their yield potential, oil contents, fatty acid composition, and profitability under three sowing methods, viz., bed sowing, line sowing, and ridge sowing and two tillage system, viz., plow till and minimum till. Among the sunflower genotypes, the genotype Armoni produced the highest plant height, number of leaves, head diameter, 1000-achene weight, and achene yield; the oil contents and oleic acid were the highest in genotype Sinji. Among the sowing methods, the highest number of leaves per plant, head diameter, number of achenes per head, achene yield, and oil contents were recorded in ridge sowing. Among the tillage systems, the highest head diameter 16. 2 cm, 1000-achene weight (57.2 g), achene yield (1.8 t ha-1), oil contents (35.2%), and oleic acid (15.2%) were recorded in minimum till sunflower. The highest net benefits and benefit to cost ratio were recorded in minimum till ridge sown Armoni genotype. In conclusion, the genotype Armoni should be grown on ridges to achieve the highest achene yield, oil contents, and net profitability.

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Chlormequat chloride (CCC) is used to inhibit extension growth in cereals and promote branching and flowering in potted ornamental plants produced in greenhouses; however, experimental data on the use of CCC in field sunflower are limited. Field experiments were conducted to study the effect of foliar applications of CCC at rates of 3,000 g ha-1 (single application) and 3,000 plus 3,000 g ha-1 (double application) on the morphology and productivity of sunflower plants. CCC provoked some foliar injury on sunflower plants within a week after application, but the effect was transient; the symptoms were reduced over time and the plants recovered completely. Single application of CCC did not provide significant height reduction of sunflower plants as opposed to double application, which reduced plant height at maturity by 12.7% (or by 43.4 cm). Both application schemes promoted flowering and induced the production of more achenes, but finally resulted in reduced achene yield per plant by 17.8% and 20.3%, respectively, compared with the non-treated control. The achene yield reduction resulted by the reduction in the 100-achene weight. The study provides new evidence that allow a better understanding of the mode of action of CCC in sunflower. Overall, the foliar applications of CCC at the rates tested in this study either did not provide any advantage in terms of height reduction of sunflower plants or the height reduction achieved was accompanied by significant reduction in achene yield. On the basis of all the above, CCC does not appear to be a suitable growth regulator for the control of plant height in sunflower.

Chlormequat chloride (CCC) é usado para inibir o crescimento em altura em cereais e promover a ramificação e floração em plantas ornamentais envasadas produzidas em estufas; no entanto, os dados experimentais sobre o uso de CCC em girassol são limitados. Os experimentos de campo foram conduzidos para estudar o efeito de aplicações foliares de CCC a taxas de 3.000 g ha-1 (aplicação simples) e 3.000 + 3.000 g ha-1 (aplicação dupla) sobre a morfologia e a produtividade das plantas de girassol. A aplicação de CCC provocou algum dano nas folhas de girassol em uma semana após a aplicação, mas o efeito foi transitório; os sintomas foram reduzidos ao longo do tempo e as plantas recuperaram completamente. Aplicação simples de CCC não propiciaram redução significativa da altura de plantas de girassol em oposição à dupla aplicação, que provocou redução da altura das plantas, na maturidade, de 12.7% (ou 43.4 cm). Ambos os esquemas de aplicação promoveram floração e induziram a produção de mais aquênios, mas finalmente resultaram em redução do rendimento de aquênios por planta de 17.8% e 20.3%, respectivamente, em comparação com o controle não tratado. A redução de rendimento de aquênios foi provocada pela redução do peso de 100 aquénios, porque o número de aquénios enchidos não foi afectado significativamente. O estudo fornece novas evidências de que permitem uma melhor compreensão do modo de ação do CCC em girassol. No geral, as aplicações foliares de CCC nas taxas testadas neste estudo, ou não fornecem qualquer vantagem em termos de redução da altura de plantas de girassol, ou a redução da altura alcançada foi acompanhada de redução significativa no rendimento de aquênios. Com base no que precede, CCC não parece ser um regulador de crescimento adequado para o controle da altura das plantas em girassol.

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