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Neurocognitive adverse events have been observed with the widespread use of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors or "statins," which reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels and subsequently cardiovascular risk. The United States Food and Drug Association directed manufacturers of proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors to monitor for neurocognitive adverse events due to their potent effects on LDL-C reduction, which is a proposed mechanism for neuronal cell dysfunction. Other proposed mechanisms for PCSK9 inhibitor-associated neurocognitive adverse events include N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor modulation, dysregulation of lipid and glucose metabolism, and patient-specific risk factors for cognitive impairment. The purpose of this narrative review article is to describe the proposed mechanisms, incidence of neurocognitive adverse events from phase II and III trials for PCSK9 inhibitors, neurocognitive assessments utilized in clinical trials, and clinical implications. Given the increasing prevalence of PCSK9 inhibitor use and the neurocognitive adverse events observed with prior lipid-lowering therapies, clinicians should be aware of the risks associated with PCSK9 inhibitors, especially when therapy is indicated for patients at high risk for cardiovascular events. Overall, the incidence of PCSK9 inhibitor-associated neurocognitive appears to be uncommon. However, additional prospective studies evaluating cognitive impairment may be beneficial to determine the long-term safety of these agents.

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INTRODUCTION: Anticoagulants are among the most frequently prescribed medications in the United States. Racial and ethnic disparities in incidence and outcomes of thrombotic disorders are well-documented, but differences in response to anticoagulation are incompletely understood. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this review is to describe the impact of race and ethnicity on surrogate and clinical end points related to anticoagulation and discuss racial or ethnic considerations for prescribing anticoagulants. METHODS: A PubMed and MEDLINE search of clinical trials published between 1950 and May 2018 was conducted using search terms related to anticoagulation, specific anticoagulant drugs, race, and ethnicity. References of identified studies were also reviewed. English-language human studies on safety or efficacy of anticoagulants reporting data for different races or ethnicities were eligible for inclusion. RESULTS: Seventeen relevant studies were identified. The majority of major trials reviewed for inclusion either did not include representative populations or did not report on the racial breakdown of participants. Racial differences in pharmacokinetics, dosing requirements, drug response, and/or safety end points were identified for unfractionated heparin, enoxaparin, argatroban, warfarin, rivaroxaban, and edoxaban. CONCLUSIONS: Race appears to influence drug concentrations, dosing, or safety for some but not all direct oral anticoagulants. This information should be considered when selecting anticoagulant therapy for nonwhite individuals.

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Objective. To review the published literature describing and evaluating pharmacy student and resident preceptor development. Findings. Database searches yielded 32 published articles on pharmacy preceptor development: 22 for experiential preceptors, eight for resident preceptors, and two encompassing both experiential and resident preceptors. The identified articles covered a variety of preceptor development strategies, including live, web-based, and multifaceted approaches, which were disseminated via analytical studies, needs assessment surveys, and descriptive reports. In analytical studies, the evaluation methods most commonly used were preceptor pre- and post-perception surveys. Summary. Preceptor development strategies vary among pharmacy schools and residency programs. The evaluation methods used also varied, and there is a lack of evidence-based practices related to preceptor development. Preceptor development should be tailored based on preceptor type and program needs. An opportunity exists to further evaluate which strategies are most effective for improving precepting techniques, with an ultimate goal of delineating best practices for pharmacy preceptor development.

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INTRODUCTION: There is limited data to support a particular method for optimal team creation in pharmacy education. We aimed to implement and evaluate a systematic approach to team creation and compare the impact on team dynamics to teams created via random selection. METHODS: Two concurrent courses were used to assess team creation methods. Student-specific variables were used for team creation in one course while another course utilized teams created via random allocation. Each course conducted similar peer evaluations to provide feedback and assess team dynamics. A matched pre- and post-course survey assessed changes in student perceptions of team creation and peer evaluation. Student-perceived team effectiveness and individual coursework performance were assessed. RESULTS: A total of 109 students were enrolled in each of the two courses, with 98% and 93% providing evaluation of team dynamics within the intervention and control methods, respectively. Students perceived better team effectiveness in intervention-created groups in relation to decreased task (p < 0.01), relationship (p < 0.01), and process conflict (p < 0.01), along with increased task attraction (p < 0.01). There was no significant difference in student performance on individual examinations team creation methods (p = 0.17). CONCLUSIONS: A systematic approach to team creation improved student-perceived team dynamics with no significant impact on coursework scores. A systematic approach to team creation via a web-based platform is feasible in a large classroom setting and may provide an avenue for assessment approaches related to teamwork and team dynamics.

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OBJECTIVES: To compare outcomes with single tablet regimens (STR) versus multi-tablet regimens (MTR) for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment using published data. DESIGN: Systematic review and random-effects meta-analysis of literature on approved and investigational HIV regimens. METHODS: The research followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Single or un-blinded studies reporting a direct comparison between STR and MTR were eligible for the meta-analysis. Double-blinded studies were excluded due to lack of difference in pill burden between cohorts. The key outcomes of interest included: adherence rates/proportion meeting target, efficacy, safety/tolerability, non-clinical and economic outcomes. RESULTS: After screening 63 full-text articles and posters, 14 studies were eligible for the meta-analysis. The analysis showed that patients taking STR had improved outcomes over those taking MTR. Patients were significantly more adherent regardless of daily dosing frequency (odds ratio [OR]: 1.96, p < 0.001) and were more likely to achieve virological suppression (relative risk [RR]: 1.05, p = 0.002). There was a trend toward a lower discontinuation risk in the STR cohort, together with reported higher therapy satisfaction, better symptom control, improved health status, reduced healthcare resource utilization and demonstrated cost-effectiveness compared to MTR. There were no differences in CD4 cell count increase (at 48 weeks) or safety outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study confirm previously reported preliminary findings of the advantages of STR over MTR for HIV treatment in adherence, therapy continuation, viral suppression, tolerability, quality of life improvement, cost-effectiveness and healthcare resource utilization.

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