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Theoretical accounts of loneliness suggest that it may lead to psychopathological consequences by increasing the perception of social threat. However, it is unclear whether the real-life effects of both trait and state loneliness are specific to social situations. To answer this question, two experience sampling studies were conducted with prestratified samples of young adults (18-35) with moderate (Study 1, N = 64) or low and high (Study 2, N = 103) levels of loneliness. Participants were asked to report their emotional states and appraisals of social and nonsocial situations. Multilevel modelling of momentary and time-lagged associations revealed that trait loneliness was associated with less positive (Study 1) and more negative (Study 2) company appraisals. Importantly, in Study 2, trait loneliness was also related to less positive and more negative appraisals of being alone. Momentary loneliness was related to less positive and more negative appraisals of both types and predicted negative social appraisals over time in both studies. In Study 2, time-lagged interaction effects on social appraisals were found between the two levels. The results suggest that in highly lonely individuals, both levels of loneliness may lead to a general negativity bias and have a synergistic effect.

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In the face of a growing number of overweight people and two widely known viral diseases, SARS-CoV-2 and influenza, it is crucial to be aware of the impact of excess body weight on immunisation against these diseases. The aim of this review is to show the effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza vaccines in overweight and obese patients. Excessive adipose tissue releases cytokines and maintains local hypoxia, which causes persistent low-grade inflammation. These factors make excess body mass patients' immune systems weaker. Under such conditions, the humoral response becomes less efficient, leading to a weakened ability to fight against infection and an increased risk of developing lower antibody titres. Vaccines help to reduce morbidity both in normal-weight and excess body mass people, although most studies show that patients with higher BMI tend to lose the antibodies produced more quickly. It is shown that the most effective vaccines (in terms of preventing the infection and potential post-illness complications) are the BNT162b2 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 and the inactivated influenza vaccine against influenza among both obese and non-obese subjects.

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Perceived social isolation, or loneliness, has been repeatedly linked to numerous adverse health outcomes. Much effort has been directed towards elucidating the mechanisms underlying its effects on the cardiovascular system, which may explain the deleterious effects on morbidity and mortality. It has been previously suggested that perceived social isolation can impair effective parasympathetic regulation and physiological adjustment to the demands of the social environment. Thus, the present study aimed at investigating the causal impact of an induction of loneliness on vagal activity during social stimuli processing. In the study, participants (N = 119) were led to anticipate either a future filled with satisfying relationships (Future Belong) or a lonely life (Future Alone). Then, they were asked to complete an implicit emotion regulation task while their cardiovascular activity was recorded. In the Future Belong group, a pattern of vagal suppression was observed between the resting period and task completion, which was followed by vagal recovery during the post-task resting period. However, in the Future Alone group, a change from the baseline HRV was observed only at the beginning of the task, but not during its consecutive stages. Moreover, in participants who believed in the given FA feedback, the initial vagal suppression was absent. These findings provide evidence that even a brief induction of loneliness can result in a blunted vagal suppression during social information processing. It can be hypothesized that the lack of the ability to regulate vagal activity while processing social cues may potentially underlie problems with social engagement and self-control.

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RESUMEN

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has led governments worldwide to implement unprecedented response strategies. While crucial to limiting the spread of the virus, "social distancing" may lead to severe psychological consequences, especially in lonely individuals. METHODS: We used cross-sectional (n = 380) and longitudinal (n = 74) designs to investigate the links between loneliness, anxiety, and depression symptoms (ADS) and COVID-19 risk perception and affective response in young adults who implemented social distancing during the first 2 weeks of the state of epidemic threat in Poland. RESULTS: Loneliness was correlated with ADS and with affective response to COVID-19's threat to health. However, increased worry about the social isolation and heightened risk perception for financial problems was observed in lonelier individuals. The cross-lagged influence of the initial affective response to COVID-19 on subsequent levels of loneliness was also found. CONCLUSION: The reciprocal connections between loneliness and COVID-19 response may be of crucial importance for ADS during the COVID-19 crisis.

RESUMEN

Both cognitive appraisals of risks associated with the specific disease and affective response to crisis situations have been shown to shape an individual response to pandemics. COVID-19 pandemic and measures introduced to contain it present an unparalleled challenge to mental well-being worldwide. Here, we examine the relationship between self-reported cognitive biases (CB) and emotion regulation skills (ER), COVID-19 risk perception and affective response, and mental well-being (MWB). Five Hundred and Eleven individuals completed General Health Questionnaire, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Davos Assessment of Cognitive Biases Scale (DACOBS) as well as scales measuring COVID-19 risk perception and affective response during the initial days of the epidemic in Poland. We used path and bootstrapping analyses to examine the hypothesis that CB may shape MWB during COVID-19 pandemic both directly and indirectly by (i) decreasing ER capacity and (ii) by increasing COVID-19 risk perception and affective response. Negative effect of CB and positive effect of ER via cognitive reappraisal on MWB were observed in participants. Furthermore, in line with our hypothesis, we observed indirect effects of CB via increased COVID-19 risk perception and affective response and decreased use of reappraisal strategy, which all, in turn, were related to MWB. Finally, we found an indirect effect of CB on MWB through double mediation of suppression strategies and COVID-19 affective response. Results of the current study suggest that CB, which have been shown to be linked to a variety of mental health symptoms in non-clinical populations, may exacerbate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health outcomes.