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OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine whether right ventricular (RV) dysfunction at 24-hour postnatal age predicts adverse developmental outcome among patients with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) undergoing therapeutic hypothermia (TH). DESIGN: Neonates≥35 weeks with HIE/TH were enrolled in a physiological study in the neonatal period (n=46) and either died or underwent neurodevelopmental follow-up at 18 months (n=43). The primary outcome was a composite of death, diagnosis of cerebral palsy or any component of the Bayley Scores of Infant Development III<70. We hypothesised that tricuspid annulus plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) <6 mm and/or RV fractional area change (RV-FAC) <0.29 would predict adverse outcome. RESULTS: Nine patients died and 34 patients were followed up at a mean age of 18.9±1.4 months. Both indices of RV systolic performance were abnormal in 15 (35%) patients, TAPSE <6 mm only was abnormal in 4 (9%) patients and RV-FAC <0.29 only was abnormal in 5 (12%) patients (19 had with normal RV function). Although similar at admission, neonates with RV dysfunction had higher cardiovascular and neurological illness severity by 24 hours than those without and severe MRI abnormalities (70% vs 53%, p=0.01) were more common. On logistic regression, TAPSE <6 mm (OR 3.6, 95% CI 1.2 to 10.1; p=0.017) and abnormal brain MRI [OR 21.7, 95% CI 1.4 to 336; p=0.028) were independently associated with adverse outcome. TAPSE <6 mm predicted outcome with a 91% sensitivity and 81% specificity. CONCLUSIONS: The role of postnatal cardiovascular function on neurological outcomes among patients with HIE who receive TH merits further study. Quantitative measurement of RV function at 24 hours may provide an additional neurological prognostic tool.

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Children born very preterm (VPT) are at high-risk for altered brain development and impaired neurodevelopmental outcomes but are not well-studied before school-age. We investigated 64 four-year-olds: 37 VPT children [<32 weeks gestational age [GA]; 22 males; mean GA: 28.8 weeks ± 1.6], 25 full-term (FT) children (12 males), plus two VPT cases with ventriculomegaly and exceptionally resilient outcomes. All children underwent high-resolution structural magnetic resonance imaging and developmental assessments. Measures of brain volume, cortical thickness, and surface area were obtained. Children born VPT demonstrated reduced cerebral and cerebellar white matter volumes yet increased cerebral gray matter, temporal lobe, occipital lobe and ventricle volumes after adjusting for total brain volume. Cortical thickness was greater in the VPT children compared to FT children across all lobes. On developmental assessments, the VPT children scored lower on average than FT children while the two cases had intact cognitive abilities. In addition to larger ventricle volumes, the two cases had white matter and gray matter volumes within the ranges of the FT children. The VPT children displayed distinct differences in structural brain volumes at 4 years of age, consistent with delayed maturation. The cases with persistent ventriculomegaly and good cognitive outcomes displayed typical gray matter and increased white matter volumes, indicating a potential protective developmental phenomenon contributing to their intact cognitive abilities.

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Identifying trajectories of early white matter development is important for understanding atypical brain development and impaired functional outcomes in children born very preterm (<32 weeks gestational age [GA]). In this study, 161 diffusion images were acquired in children born very preterm (median GA: 29 weeks) shortly following birth (75), term-equivalent (39), 2 years (18), and 4 years of age (29). Diffusion tensors were computed to obtain measures of fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD), which were aligned and averaged. A paediatric atlas was applied to obtain diffusion metrics within 12 white matter tracts. Developmental trajectories across time points demonstrated age-related changes which plateaued between term-equivalent and 2 years of age in the majority of posterior tracts and between 2 and 4 years of age in anterior tracts. Between preterm and term-equivalent scans, FA rates of change were slower in anterior than posterior tracts. Partial least squares analyses revealed associations between slower MD and RD rates of change within the external and internal capsule with lower intelligence quotients and language scores at 4 years of age. These results uniquely demonstrate early white matter development and its linkage to cognitive functions.

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OBJECTIVE: To identify perinatal risk factors associated with long-term neurocognitive and behavioral impairments in children born very preterm using a multivariate, partial least squares approach. STUDY DESIGN: Twenty-seven perinatal clinical and magnetic resonance imaging measures were collected at birth and during the neonatal intensive care stay for 105 neonates born very preterm (≤ 32 weeks gestational age). One-half of the children returned for neuropsychological assessments at 2 and 4 years of age. Parent-reported behavioral measures were also obtained at 4 years of age. Three partial least squares analyses were performed to determine associations between clinical and radiologic measures with cognitive outcomes at 2 and 4 years of age, as well as with behavioral measures at 4 years of age. RESULTS: Within the first components of each analysis, only intrauterine growth restriction, male sex, and absence of antenatal corticosteroid use were associated with poorer cognitive and language ability at 2 and 4 years of age, accounting for 79.6% and 71.4% of the total variance, respectively. In addition, white matter injury at term-equivalent age contributed to more problematic internalizing behaviors, behavioral symptoms, and impaired executive function at 4 years of age, accounting for 67.9% of the total variance. CONCLUSIONS: Using this data-driven multivariate approach, specific measures in prenatal and early postnatal life are shown to be selectively and significantly associated with cognitive and behavioral outcomes in children born very preterm. Early detection of risk factors can help inform prognoses of children at greatest risk of long-term impairments.

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PURPOSE: To measure cerebellar growth in a longitudinal cohort of very preterm infants to identify early predictors of subsequent brain growth. Although the cerebellum grows rapidly during late gestation, the rate and variability of growth following premature birth, and the effects of associated injury, are largely unknown. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In all, 105 very-preterm born infants (24-32 weeks GA) were imaged using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at birth, term-equivalent, 2, and 4 years of age. Cerebellar and total cerebral volumes were estimated from 1 mm isotropic T1 -weighted scans acquired at 1.5T and 3T, using an atlas-based approach. Linear models were used to analyze cerebellar volume as cross-sectional and longitudinal functions of age, clinical, and radiological correlates. Linear models were also used to test for associations between volume and cognitive outcome. RESULTS: Cerebellar volume increased rapidly with age-at-scan during both the preterm (0.7 mL/wk, P < 0.001) and term periods (1.8 mL/wk, P < 0.001). Infants with grade 3 or 4 germinal matrix hemorrhage (GMH) had smaller cerebellar volumes as a percentage of total brain volume starting at birth and continuing to 4 years of age (-0.43%, -0.57%, -1.09% at preterm, term, and 4 years, respectively, P < 0.01). Irrespective of age-at-scan, early cerebellar volume was predictive of volume at 4 years of age (slope = 1.3, P < 0.001). Cerebellar volumes were not found to predict cognitive outcome at 4 years of age; P < 0.2. CONCLUSION: High-grade GMH and small perinatal cerebellar size is predictive of cerebellar development up to 4 years of age. These findings suggest that it is possible to identify individuals at high risk of reduced cerebellar volumes at an early age. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2016;43:1462-1473.

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INTRODUCTION: Preterm births are increasing in number and while the rates of cerebral palsy have declined, there are increasing numbers of infants who survive with handicaps. In some studies, up to 50 % of children will have morbidity when followed up to school age. METHODS: A review of current literature was conducted to determine the validity of routine cranial ultrasound scans (CUS) to predict neurodevelopmental outcomes, including motor and cognitive deficits. We also reviewed the additional benefit offered by including MRI scans in scanning protocols to enhance the reliability in predicting the neurodevelopmental sequelae of prematurity. RESULTS: CUS is valuable as a screening tool to determine significant brain injury when conducted regularly over the first weeks of life in preterm infants. Subtle changes on CUS are difficult to interpret and more precise information is offered by performing MRI scans. These are most often carried out at term equivalent age but earlier scans may be just as useful in predicting neurocognitive outcomes. When MRI scans are either normal or seriously abnormal, there is a very clear correlation with outcome to 2 years of age. Mild and moderate degrees of injury defined on MRI need more sophisticated scanning sequences to determine the likelihood of associated sequelae. Follow-up to school age is essential to diagnose more subtle cognitive delays. CONCLUSION: CUS provides a good screening tool to detect serious brain injury resulting in motor handicaps but MRI scans are complementary and necessary to accurately predict the outcomes of preterm infants, especially cognitive delays.

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AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility of undertaking visual functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in very preterm children. METHOD: Forty-seven infants born at less than 32 weeks gestational age (25 males, 22 females; mean (SD) age at birth 28.8 wks [1.9]) were scanned using 1.5 T MRI as part of a longitudinal neuroimaging study. These infants were scanned at preterm age (within 2 wks of birth) and at term-equivalent age. Quantitative T2* data and fMRI in response to visual stimuli (flashing strobe) were acquired in this population. T2* values were compared at preterm age and at term-equivalent age using a two-tailed t-test. A general linear model was used to evaluate occipital lobe response to visual stimuli. RESULTS: T2* values were significantly higher at preterm age than at term-equivalent age in both the medial and lateral occipital lobes (preterm infants: 187.2 ms and 198.4 ms respectively; term infants: 110.9 ms and 133.2 ms respectively; p<0.002). Significant positive occipital lobe activation (q<0.01) was found in 3 out of 65 (5%) fMRIs carried out at preterm age and in 19 out of 26 (73%) scans carried out at term-equivalent age. INTERPRETATION: Visual stimuli do not elicit a reliable blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response in very preterm infants during the preterm period. This suggests that BOLD fMRI may not be the appropriate modality for investigating occipital lobe function in very preterm infants.

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PURPOSE: To elucidate the relationship between gestational age, pathologic findings, and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging measures of tissue maturation-myelination in deep gray matter areas in very preterm neonates imaged at birth. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was approved by the research ethics board. Written informed consent was given by the infants' parents. Forty-two preterm neonates (19 boys; median gestational age, 28.7 weeks) with normal-appearing gray matter structures at presentation underwent MR imaging within 2 weeks of birth that included T1- and T2-weighted, magnetization transfer, and T1 relaxometry sequences. Neonates were separated into the following groups: those with normal findings (n = 23), those with white matter injury (WMI) (n = 9), those with grade I germinal matrix hemorrhage (GMH) (n = 3), and those with grade II GMH and WMI (n = 7). Analysis of covariance was used to determine regional effects of age and pathologic findings on magnetization transfer ratio (MTR) and to assess the relationship between MTR and T1. RESULTS: MTR increased linearly with age (P ≤ .0265), with a similar rate of change of 0.32% per week (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.16, 0.49) in the basal ganglia (BG) and thalami. A lower trend (0.11% per week; 95% CI: -0.05, 0.28) was seen in the pons. Higher MTRs were seen in the thalami and pons than in the BG (P < .05), indicating earlier maturation. Accordingly, higher T1 values were observed in the BG relative to the thalami (P < .0001). Higher MTRs in the BG were observed in the group of neonates with normal findings at presentation than in the group with WMI (P = .02). CONCLUSION: MTR measurements can be used to monitor early myelination in the developing brain and to help detect changes in tissue that are not shown on T1- and T2-weighted MR images.

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BACKGROUND: T1- and T2-W MR sequences used for obtaining diagnostic information and morphometric measurements in the neonatal brain are frequently acquired using different imaging protocols. Optimizing one protocol for obtaining both kinds of information is valuable. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether high-resolution T1- and T2-W volumetric sequences optimized for preterm brain imaging could provide both diagnostic and morphometric value. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty preterm neonates born between 24 and 32 weeks' gestational age were scanned during the first 2 weeks after birth. T1- and T2-W high-resolution sequences were optimized in terms of signal-to-noise ratio, contrast-to-noise ratio and scan time and compared to conventional spin-echo-based sequences. RESULTS: No differences were found between conventional and high-resolution T1-W sequences for diagnostic confidence, image quality and motion artifacts. A preference for conventional over high-resolution T2-W sequences for image quality was observed. High-resolution T1 images provided better delineation of thalamic myelination and the superior temporal sulcus. No differences were found for detection of myelination and sulcation using conventional and high-resolution T2-W images. CONCLUSION: High-resolution T1- and T2-W volumetric sequences can be used in clinical MRI in the very preterm brain to provide both diagnostic and morphometric information.

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This study evaluated the effects of head growth compromise beginning in utero and continuing, in some cases, through the first 9 months of life on the cognitive and literacy skills of school-age small-for-gestational-age (SGA) children. Seventy-one SGA children, aged 7 to 9 years (gestational ages, 24-41 weeks) and 16 full-term appropriate-for-gestational-age control children of comparable socioeconomic backgrounds and age at testing completed tests assessing intelligence, receptive language, working memory, problem solving, visual-motor integration, phonological awareness, reading, and spelling. SGA children were subdivided into head-growth pattern groups based on their head circumference at birth and at 9 months postterm. Analyses showed that SGA children with poor prenatal and postnatal head growth had the worst outcomes, followed by those with prenatal brain compromise, but good postnatal head growth. SGA children with preserved head growth in utero as well as good head growth after birth demonstrated the best outcomes, although spelling skills were deficient relative to full-term peers. The Verbal and Full Scale IQ ratings of the SGA children who had experienced brain compromise in utero declined significantly from 5 to 8 years of age. We conclude that mild intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) has a minimal effect on the development of cognitive or academic abilities, providing that brain growth in utero is not affected. IUGR that slows brain growth in utero impairs the acquisition of some cognitive and academic abilities, even when followed by good catch-up head growth after birth, whereas poor brain growth in utero followed by little or no catch-up head growth results in widespread impairments. Findings highlight the limits to brain plasticity and emphasize the importance of optimal prenatal and postnatal brain growth.

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