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The increased popularity of the bikini-physique competitions has not translated to greater research identifying the influence of age on adaptations during contest preparation. The purpose of this case series was to observe how age may influence the adaptations normally seen during preparation and the exploration of newer protocols to address adaptations more relative to the judging standards. Over a 16-week pre-contest preparation, a 32-y bikini competitor (BC) and 44-y master's bikini competitor (MBC) visited the laboratory bi-weekly to observe changes in body fat mass (BF), lean body mass (LBM), bone mineral density (BMD), total body water (TBW); exploratory measures of deltoid cross-sectional area (DeltCSA), gluteus maximus muscle thickness (GMMT), and subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness (SAT); reproductive hormones estradiol (E2), luteinizing hormone (LH), and energy balance hormones triiodothyronine (T3), leptin and ghrelin; hydration status during contest preparation and the week of competition; resting metabolic rate (RMR); psychometric data related to perceived anxiety, stress, and body image were assessed. No differences between BC and MBC were observed in BF, LBM, BMD, and TBW. Both competitors showed a small loss in LBM. Both BC and MBC showed a contrasting increase in DeltCSA and a loss in GMMT. MBC showed to be slightly more dehydrated (1.025 vs 1.021 g·mL- 1) than BC. Both competitors maintained a euhydration status the day of the competition. No time differences were found between BC and MBC during RMR. BC showed a higher mean difference RMR compared to MBC (2.66 ± 0.75 kcal·kgLBM- 1·d- 1). MBC showed a higher mean difference in LH concentration (84.6 ± 6.01 IU·L- 1), which may be explained by perimenopausal status. MBC had a higher mean difference concentration of leptin (2.51 ± 0.24 ng·mL- 1·kgFM- 1), which was unperturbed by fat loss may be interrelated LH. BC self-reported a higher mean energy intake (15.07 ± 3.43 kcal·kgLBM- 1·d- 1) and higher aerobic training volume (93.26 ± 40.68 min·d). BC and MBC showed similar composition changes, slightly differing metabolic rates, and differing hormonal LH and leptin responses. This finding is in contrast to previous work showing both LH inhibition and leptin diurnal disturbance in younger, female athletes with low energy availability. The exploratory measures may have some benefit for bikini-physique competitors related to the judging criteria. Age did not seem to play a role in contest preparation adaptations.

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Disparities in health and academic achievement affect large cross-sections of the same population subgroups. This study examined the relationship metabolic health and academic achievement in youth "at risk" for school dropout in rural Mississippi. Fifteen adolescents participated in a studio based learning educational summer camp and subsequent follow-up sessions during the regular school year that were aimed at developing knowledge of core curriculum subjects by developing design projects based on the camp STEM-related theme. These projects are characteristic of a pedagogical technique known as Studio Based Learning (SBL) and involve more movement than a traditional classroom setting. Participants' metabolic health was assessed via measurements of blood lipids and glucose, blood pressure, BMI and waist circumference, and examined individually and as a combined risk score. Academic achievement measurements were obtained from district standardized testing. Mean BMI for this sample was classified as overweight; however, other metabolic parameters (blood lipids and glucose, and resting blood pressure) were in normal ranges for this age group. Little association was found between metabolic health and academic achievement and in this sample for math of language (r = -0.56 and 0.20, respectively). Participants took part in notable amounts of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during the SBL camp and very little in the traditional classroom setting (approximately 30 vs. 7 min/day, respectively). Actively engaging teaching strategies, such as SBL, may impart a meaningful impact on physical activity levels of school-aged children, which may have long term, positive health outcomes.

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The combination of mental and physical challenges can elicit exacerbated cardiorespiratory (CR) and catecholamine responses above that of a single challenge alone. PURPOSE: This study examined the effects of a combination of acute mental challenges and physical stress on cardiorespiratory and catecholamine responses. METHOD: Eight below-average fitness (LF VO2max = 36.58 ± 3.36 ml-1 kg-1 min-1) and eight above-average fitness (HF VO2max = 51.18 ± 2.09 ml-1 kg-1 min-1) participants completed an exercise-alone condition (EAC) session consisting of moderate-intensity cycling at 60% VO2max for 37 min, and a dual-challenge condition (DCC) that included concurrent participation in mental challenges while cycling. RESULT: The DCC resulted in increases in perceived workload, CR, epinephrine, and norepinephrine responses overall. HF participants had greater absolute CR and catecholamine responses compared to LF participants and quicker HR recovery after the dual challenge. CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrate that cardiorespiratory fitness does impact the effect of concurrent stressors on CR and catecholamine responses.

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Work duration may affect firefighters' stress responses. Forty-two firefighters (38 males) performed either 2 (SWD) or 3 (LWD) bouts of simulated fire suppression activity. Salivary cortisol, self-reported fear and anxiety, and perceptual thermal responses were measured. Cortisol was evaluated using area-under-the-curve calculations (Pruessner et al., 2003). Affective responses between the two conditions were compared using T-tests. Pearson product moment correlations were used to analyze the relationships between affect and change in thermal load perception. Cortisol decreased across the protocol in both groups, and no difference was found in cortisol or affect between the groups. Cortisol decreased (F4,36 = 3.43, p < 0.05) in the SWD group from a mean concentration of 40.93 ± 11.41 nmol/L to 25.07 ± 9.88 nmol/L at the end of the protocol. In the LWD group, the mean cortisol concentration decreased from 42.89 ± 11.83 to 25.07 ± 8.82 at the end of the protocol (F5,50 = 14.77, p < 0.01). Anxiety increased in the LWD (F4,72 = 5.11, p = 0.001) but not the SWD group. Fear increased in the SWD (F3,48 = 14.15, p < 0.001) and LWD group (F4,60 = 4.47, p < 0.01). The present findings suggests a moderate fear load with firefighting, which appears not to be associated with duration of work bout. Examination of more varied work bout lengths may reveal an association between anxiety and work duration. However, the work bout durations investigated in the current study comprise the range of what is practical from an occupational standpoint and the physiological capabilities of the firefighters.

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The aim of the study was to assess the stress responses in drivers during an official rally car race and the influence of fitness and body composition on stress hormones. Fitness and body composition were assessed in 9 rally car drivers with an incremental exercise test for determination of maximum aerobic speed (MAS) and 6-site skinfold method, respectively. Before (pre) and after (post) the first stage of an official rally car race, data were collected for heart rate (HR), blood samples were collected for analysis of hormones (i.e., epinephrine [EPI], norepinephrine [NE], cortisol, and aldosterone) and metabolites (i.e., lactate [LA], glucose, and ammonia). There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) increases in all assessed variables except glucose at postrace. Heart rate increased 93% (p ≤ 0.05) at the end of the race stage, reaching 88.77 ± 4.96% of HRpeak. Also, EPI and NE significantly (p = 0.001) increased by 45 and 65%, respectively, and LA increased by 395% (p < 0.001). Significant correlations between percent body fat (%BF) and postrace EPI (r = 0.95; p < 0.001), and percentage change of EPI (r = 0.83; p = 0.012) were observed. The MAS was not associated to any metabolic or hormonal variable. These results suggest that psycho-physiological stress induced by the race elicited important changes in hormonal and metabolic variables and that %BF could be an important mediator of psycho-physiological stress in rally car drivers. Specific programs, including both strength and aerobic training, and nutritional plans should be implemented for appropriate conditioning of rally car drivers.

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Obesity-related oxidative stress, the imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants (e.g., nitric oxide), has been linked to metabolic and cardiovascular disease, including endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are essential for physiological functions including gene expression, cellular growth, infection defense, and modulating endothelial function. However, elevated ROS and/or diminished antioxidant capacity leading to oxidative stress can lead to dysfunction. Physical activity also results in an acute state of oxidative stress. However, it is likely that chronic physical activity provides a stimulus for favorable oxidative adaptations and enhanced physiological performance and physical health, although distinct responses between aerobic and anaerobic activities warrant further investigation. Studies support the benefits of dietary modification as well as exercise interventions in alleviating oxidative stress susceptibility. Since obese individuals tend to demonstrate elevated markers of oxidative stress, the implications for this population are significant. Therefore, in this review our aim is to discuss (i) the role of oxidative stress and inflammation as associated with obesity-related diseases, (ii) the potential concerns and benefits of exercise-mediated oxidative stress, and (iii) the advantageous role of dietary modification, including acute or chronic caloric restriction and vitamin D supplementation.

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Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) has been recently identified as a biomarker of vascular inflammation in predicting cardiovascular events. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of cardiorespiratory fitness on plasma PTX3 and cortisol responses to stress, utilizing a dual-stress model. Fourteen male subjects were classified into high-fit (HF) and low-fit (LF) groups and completed 2 counterbalanced experimental conditions. The exercise-alone condition (EAC) consisted of cycling at 60% maximal oxygen uptake for 37 min, while the dual-stress condition (DSC) included 20 min of a mental stress while cycling for 37 min. Plasma PTX3 revealed significant increases over time with a significant elevation at 37 min in both HF and LF groups in response to EAC and DSC. No difference in plasma PTX3 levels was observed between EAC and DSC. In addition, plasma cortisol revealed a significant condition by time interaction with greater levels during DSC at 37 min, whereas cardiorespiratory fitness level did not reveal different plasma cortisol responses in either the EAC or DSC. Aerobic exercise induces plasma PTX3 release, while additional acute mental stress, in a dual-stress condition, does not exacerbate or further modulate the PTX3 response. Furthermore, cardiorespiratory fitness may not affect the stress reactivity of plasma PTX3 to physical and combined physical and psychological stressors. Finally, the exacerbated cortisol responses to combined stress may provide the potential link to biological pathways that explain changes in physiological homeostasis that may be associated with an increase in the risk of cardiovascular disease.

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Psychological stress has been proposed as a major contributor to the progression of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Acute mental stress can activate the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis, eliciting the release of catecholamines (NE and EPI) resulting in the elevation of heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP). Combined stress (psychological and physical) can exacerbate these cardiovascular responses, which may partially contribute to the elevated risk of CVD and increased proportionate mortality risks experienced by some occupations (e.g., firefighting and law enforcement). Studies have supported the benefits of physical activity on physiological and psychological health, including the cardiovascular response to acute stress. Aerobically trained individuals exhibit lower sympathetic nervous system (e.g., HR) reactivity and enhanced cardiovascular efficiency (e.g., lower vascular reactivity and decreased recovery time) in response to physical and/or psychological stress. In addition, resistance training has been demonstrated to attenuate cardiovascular responses and improve mental health. This review will examine stress-induced cardiovascular reactivity and plausible explanations for how exercise training and physical fitness (aerobic and resistance exercise) can attenuate cardiovascular responses to stress. This enhanced functionality may facilitate a reduction in the incidence of stroke and myocardial infarction. Finally, this review will also address the interaction of obesity and physical activity on cardiovascular reactivity and CVD.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of carbohydrate ingestion on force output and time to exhaustion using single leg static contractions superimposed with brief periods of electromyostimulation. Six trained male subjects participated in a randomized, counterbalanced, double-blind study. The subjects were randomly assigned to placebo (PL) or carbohydrate (CHO). The subjects in CHO consumed 1 g of carbohydrate per kilogram of body mass loading dose and 0.17 g of carbohydrate per kilogram of body mass every 6 minutes during the exercise protocol. The PL received an equal volume of a solution made of saccharin and aspartame. The exercise protocol consisted of repeated 20-second static contractions of quadriceps muscle at 50% maximal voluntary contraction followed by 40-second rest until failure occurred. Importantly, the force output during quadriceps maximal voluntary contraction strength with superimposed electromyostimulation was measured in the beginning and every 5 minutes during the last 3 seconds of static contractions throughout the exercise protocol. Venous blood samples were taken preexercise, immediately postexercise, and at 5 minutes postexercise and analyzed for blood lactate. Our results indicate that time to exhaustion (PL = 16.0 ± 8.1 minutes; CHO = 29.0 ± 13.1 minutes) and force output (PL = 3,638.7 ± 524.5 N; CHO = 5,540.1 ± 726.1 N) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in CHO compared with that in PL. Data suggest that carbohydrate ingestion before and during static muscle contractions can increase force output and increase time to exhaustion. Therefore, our data suggest that carbohydrate supplementation before and during resistance exercise might help increase the training volume of athletes.

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BACKGROUND: Dietary supplements containing L-arginine are marketed to improve exercise performance, but the efficacy of such supplements is not clear. Therefore, this study examined the efficacy of acute ingestion of L-arginine alpha-ketoglutarate (AAKG) muscular strength and endurance in resistance trained and untrained men. METHODS: Eight resistance trained and eight untrained healthy males ingested either 3000mg of AAKG or a placebo 45 minutes prior to a resistance exercise protocol in a randomized, double-blind crossover design. One-repetition maximum (1RM) on the standard barbell bench press and leg press were obtained. Upon determination of 1RM, subjects completed repetitions to failure at 60% 1RM on both the standard barbell bench press and leg press. Heart rate was measured pre and post exercise. One week later, subjects ingested the other supplement and performed the identical resistance exercise protocol. RESULTS: Our data showed statistical significant differences (p<0.05) between resistance trained and untrained males for both 1RM and total load volume (TLV; multiply 60% of 1RM times the number of repetitions to failure) for the upper body. However, 1RM and TLV were not statistically different (p>0.05) between supplementation conditions for either resistance trained or untrained men in the bench press or leg press exercises. Heart rate was similar at the end of the upper and lower body bouts of resistance exercise with AAKG vs. placebo. CONCLUSION: The results from our study indicate that acute AAKG supplementation provides no ergogenic benefit on 1RM or TLV as measured by the standard barbell bench press and leg press, regardless of the subjects training status.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a mental challenge on cardiovascular and endocrine [epinephrine (EPI), norepinephrine (NE), and cortisol (CORT)] responses to subsequent low-intensity physical exertion. Twelve males (23.25±0.45 years) completed three sessions, including a graded exercise test on a cycle ergometer and two counter-balanced mental stress trials. In the mental challenge-control condition (MC), participants sat quietly for 20 min following a 20 min mental challenge whereas in the mental challenge-exercise condition (MEC) subjects cycled at 35% of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) following the mental challenge. Repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to assess state anxiety (SAI), cardiovascular variables, EPI, NE, and CORT levels across time between conditions. Participants reported significantly greater increases in SAI scores immediately after the mental challenge, which then decreased post-challenge in both conditions. Neither EPI or NE demonstrated an alteration in levels in either condition, but CORT significantly increased after the mental challenge in both conditions and then maintained a significantly greater level during the MEC compared to the MC condition from midexercise through 15 min of recovery. Area-under-the-curve calculations for CORT was significantly greater in the MEC compared to the MC. Results suggest that the initial mental challenge may have acted to enhance the overall adrenal response to the subsequent anticipation of and actual participation in the low-level physical challenge.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of acute psychological stress on LPS-stimulated TNF-α and IL-6 mRNA expression. Twenty-one healthy male subjects participated in 20 min of acute stress. Blood samples for norepinephrine and LPS-stimulated TNF-α and IL-6 cytokines and mRNA were drawn prior to, immediately after and 1-h after stress. Stress-induced increases in anxiety scores, cortisol, plasma norepinephrine, and heart rate demonstrated that the experimental protocol elicited an acute stress response. LPS-stimulated TNF-α mRNA decreased significantly immediately post-stress and partially recovered at 1h post-stress, whereas LPS-stimulated IL-6 mRNA exhibited a significant change across time, with an increase immediately after stress and a decrease 1h after stress. Trends in LPS-stimulated TNF-α and IL-6 cytokine concentrations followed the patterns of mRNA expression. A negative correlation of body mass index (BMI) and percent change of LPS-stimulated TNF-α mRNA was observed immediately post-stress, and BMI positively correlated with percent change of LPS-stimulated IL-6 cytokine levels immediately following stress. These findings demonstrated that acute psychological stress affects LPS-stimulated IL-6 and TNF-α gene expression. These results also indicate that BMI may impact the effects of psychological stress on cytokine responses to immune challenge. Further examination of the effects of stress on synthesis of other cellular cytokines and investigation of the association of BMI and stress responses will provide a more clear representation of the cytokine responses to acute psychological stress. In addition, studies examining the influence of gender on the response of immune cell subsets to acute stress and the possible mediating effect of BMI are warranted.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of concurrent physical and mental challenge on stress hormones and indicators of vascular function in firefighters. Twelve professional firefighters exercised at 60% VO(2max) while participating in a computerized Fire Strategies and Tactics Drill (FSTD-fire strategies condition [FSC]), and again at the same intensity without the mental challenge (EAC). No differences in the amount of work performed between conditions existed, although the FSC resulted in greater perceptions of overall workload. Epinephrine and norepinephrine demonstrated significant interaction effects with elevated levels during the FSC. Cortisol responses were significantly elevated across time and for the FSC. Positive correlations were found between cortisol and interleukin-6, endothelin-1, and thromboxane-B(2), and a negative correlation between interleukin-6 and thromboxane-B(2). These results suggest that concurrent challenges results in exacerbated responses of stress hormones and suggests mechanisms that could contribute to the prevalence of cardiovascular events among firefighters.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in catecholamines (epinephrine [EPI] and norepinephrine [NE]), interleukin-2 (IL-2) and a biomarker of oxidative stress (8-isoprostane) in healthy individuals who were exposed to a dual challenge (physical and psychological stress). Furthermore, this study also examined the possible relationships between catecholamines (NE and EPI) and 8-isoprostane and between IL-2 and 8-isoprostane following a combined physical and psychological challenge. Seven healthy male subjects completed two experimental conditions. The exercise-alone condition (EAC) consisted of cycling at 60% VO(2max) for 37 min, while the dual-stress condition (DSC) included 20 min of a mental challenge while cycling. DSC showed greater EPI and 8-isoprostane levels (significant condition by time interaction). NE and IL-2 revealed significant change across time in both conditions. In addition, following dual stress, EPI area-under-the-curve (AUC) demonstrated a positive correlation with NE AUC and IL-2 AUC. NE AUC was positively correlated with IL-2 AUC and peak 8-isoprostane, and peak IL-2 was positively correlated with peak 8-isoprostane in response to a dual stress. The potential explanation for elevated oxidative stress during dual stress may be through the effects of the release of catecholamines and IL-2. These findings may further provide the potential explanation that dual stress alters physiological homeostasis in many occupations including firefighting, military operations and law enforcement. A greater understanding of these responses to stress can assist in finding strategies (e.g. exercise training) to overcome the inherent psychobiological challenges associated with physically and mentally demanding professions.

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The purpose of this study examined the changes in heart rate (HR), catecholamines (NE, EPI) and percentages of blood lymphocyte subsets (CD3+ T cells, CD3+CD4+ helper T cells, CD3+CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, CD3- CD56+ NK cells, CD4/CD8 ratio, CD19+ B cells, and total lymphocytes [NK cells+T cells+B cells]) in firefighters exposed to a computerized firefighting strategies and tactics decision-making challenge while participating in moderate intensity exercise. Furthermore, this study also examined the possible relationships between catecholamines (NE and EPI) and blood lymphocyte subsets following combined mental and physical challenge. Ten professional male firefighters participated in two counterbalanced exercise conditions on a cycle ergometer: (1) 37min of cycle ergometry at 60% VO(2max) (exercise alone condition; EAC) and (2) 37min of cycle ergometry at 60% VO(2max) along with 20min of a computerized firefighting strategies and tactics decision-making challenge (firefighting strategies condition; FSC). FSC elicited significantly greater HR, NE, and EPI when compared to EAC. Both EAC and FSC elicited increases in CD3- CD56+ NK cells. The percentages of CD3+ T cells, CD3+CD4+ helper T cells, CD4/CD8 ratio, CD19+ B cells, and total lymphocytes were lower immediately following both conditions. Following dual challenge NE AUC was negatively correlated with percentage of CD19+ B cells immediately post challenge, and HR was negatively associated with the percent change in the CD4/CD8 ratio from pre to post challenge. These elevations in NE and heart rate simultaneously in response to the dual challenge suggest greater sympathetic activation that in turn would possibly explain the alteration in the distribution of lymphocyte subsets.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in heart rate (HR), catecholamines (norepinephrine [NE] and epinephrine [EPI]), pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-2 [IL-2] and interleukin-6 [IL-6]), and lymphocytes (CD8+ and CD56+) in firefighters exposed to a decision-making challenge (firefighting strategies and tactics drill) while participating in moderate intensity exercise. Nine professional male firefighters participated in two counterbalanced exercise conditions on a cycle ergometer: (1) 37 min of cycle ergometry at 60% VO(2max) (exercise alone condition ; EAC) and (2) 37 min of cycle ergometry at 60% VO(2max) along with 20 min of a computerized firefighting strategy and tactics decision-making challenge (firefighting strategy condition; FSC). FSC elicited significantly greater HR, NE, EPI, and IL-2 when compared to EAC. These elevations may suggest that the addition of a mental challenge to physical stress can alter the hormonal and immunological responses during firefighting. In addition, this evidence provides insight into the possible mechanisms that explain the link between physical activity, psychological stress, and stress-related diseases.

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Firefighters are subjected to a combination of physical and mental challenges in the course of their occupational responsibilities. However, due to the ecological factors involved with firefighting, it makes it extremely difficult to examine physiological and psychological changes that occur as a result of these combined challenges. The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of a computer-based Fire Strategies and Tactics Drill (FSTD) in eliciting psychological and physiological measures of stress in professional firefighters. In one session, participants exercised at 60% VO(2max) for 37 min (exercise alone condition, EAC), and in the other session the firefighter exercised for an equal amount of time and responded to the FSTD (dual challenge condition; DCC) while exercising. Cardiorespiratory (heart rate [HR], respiration rate [RR], minute ventilation [V(E)], oxygen consumption [VO(2)], ventilatory efficiency [V(E)/VO(2)], and respiratory exchange ratio [RER]) and psychometric measures (State Anxiety Inventory [SAI] and Ratings of Perceived Exertion [RPE]) were obtained throughout the experimental protocols. The NASA Task Load Index was used to assess perceived physical and mental load during each condition. The results demonstrated that the participants perceived overall workload to be higher in the DCC. Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed no differences between the EAC and DCC for VO(2) or RER, but the DCC did elicit significantly greater elevations in HR, RR, V(E), and V(E)/VO(2) compared to the EAC. These results suggest that the FSTD utilized in this study provides an effective method for examining the physiological and psychological responses of firefighters in a research laboratory environment.

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No studies have considered whether a firefighter's boots are a factor influencing physiological responses. The purpose of this study was to examine physiological responses to a fire simulation activity (stair climb) in professional firefighters wearing rubber boots (RB) and leather boots (LB). Twelve professional firefighters participated in two counterbalanced simulated firefighter stair climb (SFSC) sessions, one wearing RB and the other wearing LB. Heart rate, oxygen uptake (VO(2)), expiratory ventilation (V(E)), blood lactate (BLa), salivary cortisol (SCORT), and leg strength were assessed prior to and following a SFSC. LB elicited significantly greater SCORT values and knee flexion time to peak torque. Furthermore, RB revealed significantly greater ankle dorsiflexion peak torque after SFSC. BLa was positively related to knee flexion peak torque after SFSC in the RB. Firefighters when wearing the RB may be more effective at resisting fatigue and increase more force production.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the cardiorespiratory (CR) and stress hormone responses to a combined physical and mental stress. Eight participants (VO2(max) = 41.24 +/- 6.20 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) completed two experimental conditions, a treatment condition including a 37 min ride at 60% of VO2(max) with participants responding to a computerized mental challenge dual stress condition (DSC) and a control condition of the same duration and intensity without the mental challenge exercise alone condition (EAC). Significant interactions across time were found for CR responses, with heart rate, ventilation, and respiration rate demonstrating higher increases in the DSC. Additionally, norepinephrine was significantly greater in the DSC at the end of the combined challenge. Furthermore, cortisol area-under-the-curve (AUC) was also significantly elevated during the DSC. These results demonstrate that a mental challenge during exercise can exacerbate the stress response, including the release of hormones that have been linked to negative health consequences (cardiovascular, metabolic, autoimmune illnesses).

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Anxiety and depression are currently classified as separate clinical syndromes despite considerable similarities in their symptoms, pathophysiological substrates and response to treatment interventions. An alternative hypothesis views anxiety and depression along a temporal continuum, a construct that the current research attempts to model in a preclinical setting. In experiment 1, socially raised domestic fowl chicks separated from conspecifics demonstrated a pattern of distress vocalizations that sequentially models anxiety-like and depressive-like states. In addition, administration of the benzodiazepine anxiolytic chlordiazepoxide and the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine provided pharmacological validation for the model in that they were capable of dissociating the anxiety-like and depressive-like states. In experiment 2, corticosterone levels were quantified across the isolation test session to provide convergent validity to the model. These findings fit well with the human clinical literature on the anxiety-depression continuum perspective, and suggest the consideration of a nosology that emphasizes the inter-relatedness of these clinical states rather than their boundaries.

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