RESUMEN

Triatomine bugs are vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease in the American continent. Here, we have tested a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) test for a direct detection of T. cruzi in feces of Triatoma infestans, the main vector of this parasite in the Southern Cone of America. The analytical evaluation showed positive results with samples of triatomine feces artificially inoculated with DNA from strains of T. cruzi corresponding to each Discrete Typing Units (I-VI), with a sensitivity of up to one parasite per reaction. Conversely, the reaction yielded negative results when tested with DNA from Trypanosoma rangeli and other phylogenetically related and unrelated organisms. In triatomines captured under real field conditions (from urban households), and defined as positive or negative for T. cruzi using the reference microscopy technique, the LAMP test achieved a concordance of 100 %. Our results demonstrate that this LAMP reaction exhibits excellent analytical specificity and sensitivity without interference from the fecal matrix, since all the reactions were conducted without purification steps. This simple molecular diagnostic technique can be easily used by vector control agencies under field conditions.

Asunto(s)

Enfermedad de Chagas , Heces , Insectos Vectores , Técnicas de Amplificación de Ácido Nucleico , Triatoma , Trypanosoma cruzi , Animales , Heces/parasitología , Trypanosoma cruzi/aislamiento & purificación , Enfermedad de Chagas/parasitología , Enfermedad de Chagas/diagnóstico , Triatoma/parasitología , Técnicas de Amplificación de Ácido Nucleico/métodos , Insectos Vectores/parasitología , Sensibilidad y Especificidad , Técnicas de Diagnóstico Molecular

RESUMEN

Since, during the Coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic, a large part of the human population has become infected, a rapid and simple diagnostic method has been necessary to detect its causative agent, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-related Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), and control its spread. Thus, in the present study, we developed a colorimetric reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) kit that allows the detection of SARS-CoV-2 from nasopharyngeal swab samples without the need for RNA extraction. The kit utilizes three sets of LAMP primers targeting two regions of ORF1ab and one region in the E gene. The results are based on the colorimetric change of hydroxynaphthol blue, which allows visual interpretation without needing an expensive instrument. The kit demonstrated sensitivity to detect between 50 and 100 copies of the viral genome per reaction. The kit was authorized by the National Administration of Drugs, Food and Technology (ANMAT) of Argentina after validation using samples previously analyzed by the gold standard RT-qPCR. The results showed a sensitivity of 90.6% and specificity of 100%, consistent with conventional RT-qPCR. In silico analysis confirmed the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (B.1.1.7, B.1.351, P.1, B.1.617.2, B.1.427, and B.1.429), and lineages of the Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) with 100% homology. This rapid, simple, and sensitive RT-LAMP method paves the way for a large screening strategy to be carried out at locations lacking sophisticated instrumental and trained staff, as it particularly happens in regional hospitals and medical centers from rural areas.

RESUMEN

Phytochromes constitute a widespread photoreceptor family that typically interconverts between two photostates called Pr (red light­absorbing) and Pfr (far-red light­absorbing). The lack of full-length structures solved at the (near-)atomic level in both pure Pr and Pfr states leaves gaps in the structural mechanisms involved in the signal transmission pathways during the photoconversion. Here, we present the crystallographic structures of three versions from the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris virulence regulator XccBphP bacteriophytochrome, including two full-length proteins, in the Pr and Pfr states. The structures show a reorganization of the interaction networks within and around the chromophore-binding pocket, an α-helix/ß-sheet tongue transition, and specific domain reorientations, along with interchanging kinks and breaks at the helical spine as a result of the photoswitching, which subsequently affect the quaternary assembly. These structural findings, combined with multidisciplinary studies, allow us to describe the signaling mechanism of a full-length bacterial phytochrome at the atomic level.

RESUMEN

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Single-stranded DNA oligodeoxynucleotides (ssODNs) have been shown to elicit immune responses in mammals. In plants, RNA and genomic DNA can activate immunity, although the exact mechanism through which they are sensed is not clear. The aim of this work was to study the possible effect of ssODNs on plant immunity. KEY RESULTS: The ssODNs IMT504 and 2006 increased protection against the pathogens Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 and Botrytis cinerea but not against tobacco mosaic virus-Cg when infiltrated in Arabidopsis thaliana. In addition, ssODNs inhibited root growth and promoted stomatal closure in a concentration-dependent manner, with half-maximal effective concentrations between 0.79 and 2.06 µm. Promotion of stomatal closure by ssODNs was reduced by DNase I treatment. It was also diminished by the NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium and by coronatine, a bacterial toxin that inhibits NADPH oxidase-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) synthesis in guard cells. In addition it was found that ssODN-mediated stomatal closure was impaired in bak1-5, bak1-5/bkk1, mpk3 and npr1-3 mutants. ssODNs also induced early expression of MPK3, WRKY33, PROPEP1 and FRK1 genes involved in plant defence, an effect that was reduced in bak1-5 and bak1-5/bkk1 mutants. CONCLUSIONS: ssODNs are capable of inducing protection against pathogens through the activation of defence genes and promotion of stomatal closure through a mechanism similar to that of other elicitors of plant immunity, which involves the BAK1 co-receptor, and ROS synthesis.

Asunto(s)

Proteínas de Arabidopsis/genética , Arabidopsis/genética , Regulación de la Expresión Génica de las Plantas , Oligodesoxirribonucleótidos , Enfermedades de las Plantas , Inmunidad de la Planta , Pseudomonas syringae , Factores de Transcripción

RESUMEN

Xanthan is a virulence factor produced by Xanthomonas spp. We previously demonstrated that this exopolysaccharide is not only essential for pathogenicity by contributing with bacterial survival but also its pyruvate substituents interfere with some plant defense responses. Deepening our studies about xanthan properties and structure, the aim of this work was to analyze the characteristics of xanthan produced by Xanthomonas in different culture media. We analyzed the xanthan produced by Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) in leaf extracts from grapefruit (a susceptible host of this bacterium) and compared it with the xanthan produced in a synthetic culture medium. We found that the xanthan produced in the grapefruit extract (Xan-GLE) presented shorter and more disordered molecules than xanthan produced in the synthetic medium (Xan-PYM). Besides, Xan-GLE resulted less viscous than Xan-PYM. The disordered molecular conformation of Xan-GLE could be attributed to its higher pyruvilation degree and lower acetylation degree compared with those detected in Xan-PYM. Meanwhile, the difference in the viscosity of both xanthans could be due to their molecules length. Finally, we cultured Xcc in the presence of the Xan-GLE or Xan-PYM and observed the formation of biofilm-like structures in both cases. We found significant differences in biofilm architecture between the two conditions, being the biofilm produced in presence of Xan-GLE similar to that formed in canker lesions developed in lemon plant leaves. Together, these results show how xanthan structure and properties changed when Xcc grew in a natural substrate and can contribute to better understand the biological role of xanthan.

Asunto(s)

Citrus paradisi/química , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Hojas de la Planta/química , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/química , Biopelículas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Citrus paradisi/microbiología , Hojas de la Planta/microbiología , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/biosíntesis , Xanthomonas/química , Xanthomonas/genética

RESUMEN

Citrus canker is an important disease of citrus, whose causal agent is the bacterium Xanthomonas citri ssp. citri (Xcc). In previous studies, we found a group of Xcc mutants, generated by the insertion of the Tn5 transposon, which showed impaired ability to attach to an abiotic substrate. One of these mutants carries the Tn5 insertion in hupB, a gene encoding a bacterial histone-like protein, homologue to the ß-subunit of the Heat-Unstable (HU) nucleoid protein of Escherichia coli. These types of protein are necessary to maintain the bacterial nucleoid organization and the global regulation of gene expression. Here, we characterized the influence of the mutation in hupB regarding Xcc biofilm formation and virulence. The mutant strain hupB was incapable of swimming in soft agar, whereas its complemented strain partially recovered this phenotype. Electron microscope imaging revealed that impaired motility of hupB was a consequence of the absence of the flagellum. Comparison of the expression of flagellar genes between the wild-type strain and hupB showed that the mutant exhibited decreased expression of fliC (encoding flagellin). The hupB mutant also displayed reduced virulence compared with the wild-type strain when they were used to infect Citrus lemon plants using different infection methods. Our results therefore show that the histone-like protein HupB plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of Xcc through the regulation of biofilm formation and biosynthesis of the flagellum.

Asunto(s)

Biopelículas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Flagelos/metabolismo , Xanthomonas/metabolismo , Xanthomonas/patogenicidad , Mutación , Virulencia/genética , Virulencia/fisiología , Xanthomonas/genética

RESUMEN

Xanthomonas citri ssp. citri (X. citri) is the causal agent of Asiatic citrus canker, a disease that seriously affects most commercially important Citrus species worldwide. We have identified previously a natural variant, X. citri AT , that triggers a host-specific defence response in Citrus limon. However, the mechanisms involved in this canker disease resistance are unknown. In this work, the defence response induced by X. citri AT was assessed by transcriptomic, physiological and ultrastructural analyses, and the effects on bacterial biofilm formation were monitored in parallel. We show that X. citri AT triggers a hypersensitive response associated with the interference of biofilm development and arrest of bacterial growth in C. limon. This plant response involves an extensive transcriptional reprogramming, setting in motion cell wall reinforcement, the oxidative burst and the accumulation of salicylic acid (SA) and phenolic compounds. Ultrastructural analyses revealed subcellular changes involving the activation of autophagy-associated vacuolar processes. Our findings show the activation of SA-dependent defence in response to X. citri AT and suggest a coordinated regulation between the SA and flavonoid pathways, which is associated with autophagy mechanisms that control pathogen invasion in C. limon. Furthermore, this defence response protects C. limon plants from disease on subsequent challenges by pathogenic X. citri. This knowledge will allow the rational exploitation of the plant immune system as a biotechnological approach for the management of the disease.

Asunto(s)

Citrus/microbiología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Xanthomonas/patogenicidad , Autofagia/fisiología , Biopelículas , Regulación de la Expresión Génica de las Plantas , Inmunidad de la Planta/fisiología , Ácido Salicílico/metabolismo

RESUMEN

Microbes trigger stomatal closure through microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). The bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) synthesizes the polyketide toxin coronatine, which inhibits stomatal closure by MAMPs and by the hormone abscisic acid (ABA). The mechanism by which coronatine, a jasmonic acid-isoleucine analog, achieves this effect is not completely clear. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are essential second messengers in stomatal immunity, therefore we investigated the possible effect of coronatine on their production. We found that coronatine inhibits NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS production induced by ABA, and by the flagellin-derived peptide flg22. This toxin also inhibited NADPH oxidase-dependent stomatal closure induced by darkness, however, it failed to prevent stomatal closure by exogenously applied H2O2 or by salicylic acid, which induces ROS production through peroxidases. Contrary to what was observed on stomata, coronatine did not affect the oxidative burst induced by flg22 in leaf disks. Additionally, we observed that in NADPH oxidase mutants atrbohd and atrbohd/f, as well as in guard cell ABA responsive but flg22 insensitive mutants mpk3, mpk6, npr1-3, and lecrk-VI.2-1, the inhibition of ABA stomatal responses by both coronatine and the NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenylene iodonium was markedly reduced. Interestingly, coronatine still impaired ABA-induced ROS synthesis in mpk3, mpk6, npr1-3, and lecrk-VI.2-1, suggesting a possible feedback regulation of ROS on other guard cell ABA signaling elements in these mutants. Altogether our results show that inhibition of NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS synthesis in guard cells plays an important role during endophytic colonization by Pst through stomata.

RESUMEN

Xanthan, the main exopolysaccharide (EPS) synthesized by Xanthomonas spp., contributes to bacterial stress tolerance and enhances attachment to plant surfaces by helping in biofilm formation. Therefore, xanthan is essential for successful colonization and growth in planta and has also been proposed to be involved in the promotion of pathogenesis by calcium ion chelation and, hence, in the suppression of the plant defense responses in which this cation acts as a signal. The aim of this work was to study the relationship between xanthan structure and its role as a virulence factor. We analyzed four Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris mutants that synthesize structural variants of xanthan. We found that the lack of acetyl groups that decorate the internal mannose residues, ketal-pyruvate groups, and external mannose residues affects bacterial adhesion and biofilm architecture. In addition, the mutants that synthesized EPS without pyruvilation or without the external mannose residues did not develop disease symptoms in Arabidopsis thaliana. We also observed that the presence of the external mannose residues and, hence, pyruvilation is required for xanthan to suppress callose deposition as well as to interfere with stomatal defense. In conclusion, pyruvilation of xanthan seems to be essential for Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris virulence.

Asunto(s)

Arabidopsis/microbiología , Biopelículas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Glucanos/metabolismo , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/química , Xanthomonas campestris/patogenicidad , Interacciones Huésped-Patógeno , Mutación , Hojas de la Planta/microbiología , Estomas de Plantas/microbiología , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/genética , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/metabolismo , Ácido Pirúvico/química , Virulencia , Factores de Virulencia/química , Factores de Virulencia/genética , Factores de Virulencia/metabolismo , Xanthomonas campestris/genética , Xanthomonas campestris/crecimiento & desarrollo , Xanthomonas campestris/fisiología

RESUMEN

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) is the causal agent of citrus canker. Biofilm formation on citrus leaves plays an important role in epiphytic survival of Xcc. Biofilm formation is affected by transposon insertion in XAC3733, which encodes a transcriptional activator of the NtrC family, not linked to a gene encoding a sensor protein, thus could be considered as an 'orphan' regulator whose function is poorly understood in Xanthomonas spp. Here we show that mutation of XAC3733 (named xbmR) resulted in impaired structural development of the Xcc biofilm, loss of chemotaxis and reduced virulence in grapefruit plants. All defective phenotypes were restored to wild-type levels by the introduction of PA2567 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which encodes a phosphodiesterase active in the degradation of cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP). A knockout of xbmR led to a substantial downregulation of fliA that encodes a σ(28) transcription factor, as well as fliC and XAC0350 which are potential member of the σ(28) regulon. XAC0350 encodes an HD-GYP domain c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase. These findings suggest that XbmR is a key regulator of flagellar-dependent motility and chemotaxis exerting its action through a regulatory pathway that involves FliA and c-di-GMP.

Asunto(s)

Biopelículas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Quimiotaxis/genética , Flagelos/genética , Factores de Transcripción/genética , Xanthomonas/fisiología , Secuencia de Aminoácidos , Proteínas Bacterianas/biosíntesis , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Secuencia de Bases , Citrus/microbiología , GMP Cíclico/análogos & derivados , GMP Cíclico/metabolismo , Elementos Transponibles de ADN/genética , Flagelos/metabolismo , Técnicas de Inactivación de Genes , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Mutación/genética , Hidrolasas Diéster Fosfóricas/genética , Enfermedades de las Plantas/genética , Hojas de la Planta/metabolismo , Pseudomonas aeruginosa/genética , Alineación de Secuencia , Factor sigma/biosíntesis , Factor sigma/genética , Virulencia/genética , Xanthomonas/genética , Xanthomonas/patogenicidad

RESUMEN

Citrus is an economically important fruit crop that is severely afflicted by Asiatic citrus bacterial canker (CBC), a disease caused by the phytopathogen Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (X. citri). To gain insight into the molecular epidemiology of CBC, 42 Xanthomonas isolates were collected from a range of Citrus spp. across 17 different orchards in Tucumán, Argentina and subjected to molecular, biochemical, and pathogenicity tests. Analysis of genome-specific X. citri markers and DNA polymorphisms based on repetitive elements-based polymerase chain reaction showed that all 42 isolates belonged to X. citri. Interestingly, pathogenicity tests showed that one isolate, which shares >90% genetic similarity to the reference strain X. citri T, has host range specificity. This new variant of X. citri subsp. citri, named X. citri A(T), which is deficient in xanthan production, induces an atypical, noncankerous chlorotic phenotype in Citrus limon and C. paradisi and weak cankerous lesions in C. aurantifolia and C. clementina leaves. In C. limon, suppression of canker development is concomitant with an oxidative burst; xanthan is not implicated in the phenotype induced by this interaction, suggesting that other bacterial factors would be involved in triggering the defense response.

Asunto(s)

Citrus/inmunología , Citrus/microbiología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/inmunología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Xanthomonas/fisiología , Interacciones Huésped-Patógeno , Cloruro de Magnesio , Hojas de la Planta , Polisacáridos Bacterianos

RESUMEN

Xanthomonas citri ssp. citri (Xcc) is the causal agent of citrus canker. This bacterium develops a characteristic biofilm on both biotic and abiotic surfaces. A biofilm-deficient mutant was identified in a screening of a transposon mutagenesis library of the Xcc 306 strain constructed using the commercial Tn5 transposon EZ-Tn5 Tnp Transposome (Epicentre). Sequence analysis of a mutant obtained in the screening revealed that a single copy of the EZ-Tn5 was inserted at position 446 of hrpM, a gene encoding a putative enzyme involved in glucan synthesis. We demonstrate for the first time that the product encoded by the hrpM gene is involved in ß-1,2-glucan synthesis in Xcc. A mutation in hrpM resulted in no disease symptoms after 4 weeks of inoculation in lemon and grapefruit plants. The mutant also showed reduced ability to swim in soft agar and decreased resistance to H(2)O(2) in comparison with the wild-type strain. All defective phenotypes were restored to wild-type levels by complementation with the plasmid pBBR1-MCS containing an intact copy of the hrpM gene and its promoter. These results indicate that the hrpM gene contributes to Xcc growth and adaptation in its host plant.

Asunto(s)

Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Biopelículas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Glucanos/biosíntesis , Xanthomonas/fisiología , Xanthomonas/patogenicidad , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Biopelículas/efectos de los fármacos , Citrus/efectos de los fármacos , Citrus/microbiología , Flagelos/efectos de los fármacos , Flagelos/fisiología , Genes Bacterianos/genética , Peróxido de Hidrógeno/farmacología , Viabilidad Microbiana/efectos de los fármacos , Movimiento/efectos de los fármacos , Mutación/genética , Hojas de la Planta/efectos de los fármacos , Hojas de la Planta/microbiología , Virulencia/efectos de los fármacos , Xanthomonas/efectos de los fármacos , Xanthomonas/genética

RESUMEN

Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac) is the causative agent of citrus canker. This bacterium develops a characteristic biofilm on both biotic and abiotic surfaces. To evaluate the participation of the single flagellum of Xac in biofilm formation, mutants in the fliC (flagellin) and the flgE (hook) genes were generated. Swimming motility, assessed on 0.25 % agar plates, was markedly reduced in fliC and flgE mutants. However, the fliC and flgE mutants exhibited a flagellar-independent surface translocation on 0.5 % agar plates. Mutation of either the rpfF or the rpfC gene, which both encode proteins involved in cell-cell signalling mediated by diffusible signal factor (DSF), led to a reduction in both flagellar-dependent and flagellar-independent surface translocation, indicating a regulatory role for DSF in both types of motility. Confocal laser scanning microscopy of biofilms produced in static culture demonstrated that the flagellum is also involved in the formation of mushroom-shaped structures and water channels, and in the dispersion of biofilms. The presence of the flagellum was required for mature biofilm development on lemon leaf surfaces. The absence of flagellin produced a slight reduction in Xac pathogenicity and this reduction was more severe when the complete flagellum structure was absent.

Asunto(s)

Biopelículas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Citrus/microbiología , Flagelos/metabolismo , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Hojas de la Planta/microbiología , Xanthomonas axonopodis/patogenicidad , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Flagelos/fisiología , Flagelina/genética , Flagelina/metabolismo , Mutación , Xanthomonas axonopodis/crecimiento & desarrollo , Xanthomonas axonopodis/fisiología

RESUMEN

In the present study, we evaluated the effects of extracts and purified compounds from fresh leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis L. Pretreatment with the major anti-inflammatory compounds, carnosic acid (CA) and carnosol (CS), inhibited phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced ear inflammation in mice with an EC(50) of 10.20 µg/cm(2) and 10.70 µg/cm(2), respectively. To further understand the anti-inflammatory mechanism of these compounds, we analyzed the in vivo expression of several inflammation-associated genes in mouse skin by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Our data showed that CA and CS reduced the expression of IL-1ß and TNF-α but had less effect on fibronectin and ICAM-1 expression. Interestingly, both compounds selectively inhibited COX-2 but not COX-1. Histopathological analysis of hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)-stained tissue revealed a marked reduction in leukocyte infiltration and epidermal ulceration of PMA-treated ears when ears were pretreated with ethanolic extracts or pure CA. In vitro, we showed that ethanolic extract, carnosic acid and carnosol significantly inhibited the overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) in a dose-dependent manner in the RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cell line. For the first time in vivo, we showed that CA and CS differentially regulate the expression of inflammation-associated genes, thus demonstrating the pharmacological basis for the anti-inflammatory properties reported for CA and CS.

Asunto(s)

Abietanos/uso terapéutico , Inflamación/tratamiento farmacológico , Fitoterapia , Extractos Vegetales/uso terapéutico , Rosmarinus/química , Piel/efectos de los fármacos , Abietanos/farmacología , Animales , Inhibidores de la Ciclooxigenasa 2/farmacología , Inhibidores de la Ciclooxigenasa 2/uso terapéutico , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Fibronectinas/genética , Fibronectinas/metabolismo , Expresión Génica , Inflamación/inducido químicamente , Inflamación/metabolismo , Molécula 1 de Adhesión Intercelular/genética , Molécula 1 de Adhesión Intercelular/metabolismo , Interleucina-1beta/genética , Interleucina-1beta/metabolismo , Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Infiltración Neutrófila/efectos de los fármacos , Óxido Nítrico/biosíntesis , Extractos Vegetales/farmacología , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa de Transcriptasa Inversa , Piel/metabolismo , Piel/patología , Acetato de Tetradecanoilforbol , Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa/genética , Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa/metabolismo

RESUMEN

BACKGROUND: Citrus Bacterial Canker (CBC) is a major, highly contagious disease of citrus plants present in many countries in Asia, Africa and America, but not in the Mediterranean area. There are three types of Citrus Bacterial Canker, named A, B, and C that have different genotypes and posses variation in host range within citrus species. The causative agent for type A CBC is Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, while Xanthomonas fuscans subsp. aurantifolii, strain B causes type B CBC and Xanthomonas fuscans subsp. aurantifolii strain C causes CBC type C. The early and accurate identification of those bacteria is essential for the protection of the citrus industry. Detection methods based on bacterial isolation, antibodies or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been developed previously; however, these approaches may be time consuming, laborious and, in the case of PCR, it requires expensive laboratory equipment. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), which is a novel isothermal DNA amplification technique, is sensitive, specific, fast and requires no specialized laboratory equipment. RESULTS: A loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the diagnosis of Citrus Bacterial Canker (CBC-LAMP) was developed and evaluated. DNA samples were obtained from infected plants or cultured bacteria. A typical ladder-like pattern on gel electrophoresis was observed in all positive samples in contrast to the negative controls. In addition, amplification products were detected by visual inspection using SYBRGreen and using a lateral flow dipstick, eliminating the need for gel electrophoresis. The sensitivity and specificity of the assay were evaluated in different conditions and using several sample sources which included purified DNA, bacterium culture and infected plant tissue. The sensitivity of the CBC-LAMP was 10 fg of pure Xcc DNA, 5 CFU in culture samples and 18 CFU in samples of infected plant tissue. No cross reaction was observed with DNA of other phytopathogenic bacteria. The assay was capable of detecting CBC-causing strains from several geographical origins and pathotypes. CONCLUSIONS: The CBC-LAMP technique is a simple, fast, sensitive and specific method for the diagnosis of Citrus Bacterial Canker. This method can be useful in the phytosanitary programs of the citrus industry worldwide.

Asunto(s)

Citrus/microbiología , Técnicas de Amplificación de Ácido Nucleico/métodos , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Xanthomonas/aislamiento & purificación , Sensibilidad y Especificidad , Factores de Tiempo , Xanthomonas/clasificación , Xanthomonas/genética

RESUMEN

Bacteria and fungi are capable of triggering stomatal closure through pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which prevents penetration through these pores. Therefore, the stomata can be considered part of the plant innate immune response. Some pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade stomatal defense. The bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc), which infects plants of the Brassicaceae family mainly through hydathodes, has also been reported to infect plants through stomata. A recent report shows that penetration of Xcc in Arabidopsis leaves through stomata depends on a secreted small molecule whose synthesis is under control of the rpf/diffusible signal factor (DSF) cell-to-cell signaling system, which also controls genes involved in biofilm formation and pathogenesis. The same reports shows that Arabidopsis ROS- and PAMP-activated MAP kinase 3 (MPK3) is essential for stomatal innate response. Other recent and past findings about modulation of stomatal behaviour by pathogens are also discussed. In all, these findings support the idea that PAMP-triggered stomatal closure might be a more effective and widespread barrier against phytopathogens than previously thought, which has in turn led to the evolution in pathogens of several mechanisms to evade stomatal defense.

Asunto(s)

Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Estomas de Plantas/microbiología , Animales , Humanos , Inmunidad Innata , Enfermedades de las Plantas/genética , Enfermedades de las Plantas/inmunología , Estomas de Plantas/genética , Estomas de Plantas/inmunología , Estomas de Plantas/metabolismo

RESUMEN

Pathogen-induced stomatal closure is part of the plant innate immune response. Phytopathogens using stomata as a way of entry into the leaf must avoid the stomatal response of the host. In this article, we describe a factor secreted by the bacterial phytopathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris (Xcc) capable of interfering with stomatal closure induced by bacteria or abscisic acid (ABA). We found that living Xcc, as well as ethyl acetate extracts from Xcc culture supernatants, are capable of reverting stomatal closure induced by bacteria, lipopolysaccharide, or ABA. Xcc ethyl acetate extracts also complemented the infectivity of Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst) mutants deficient in the production of the coronatine toxin, which is required to overcome stomatal defense. By contrast, the rpfF and rpfC mutant strains of Xcc, which are unable to respectively synthesize or perceive a diffusible molecule involved in bacterial cell-to-cell signaling, were incapable of reverting stomatal closure, indicating that suppression of stomatal response by Xcc requires an intact rpf/diffusible signal factor system. In addition, we found that guard cell-specific Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase3 (MPK3) antisense mutants were unresponsive to bacteria or lipopolysaccharide in promotion of stomatal closure, and also more sensitive to Pst coronatine-deficient mutants, showing that MPK3 is required for stomatal immune response. Additionally, we found that, unlike in wild-type Arabidopsis, ABA-induced stomatal closure in MPK3 antisense mutants is not affected by Xcc or by extracts from Xcc culture supernatants, suggesting that the Xcc factor might target some signaling component in the same pathway as MPK3.

Asunto(s)

Arabidopsis/inmunología , Estomas de Plantas/inmunología , Transducción de Señal/inmunología , Factores de Virulencia/inmunología , Xanthomonas campestris/fisiología , Xanthomonas campestris/patogenicidad , Arabidopsis/enzimología , Proteínas de Arabidopsis/genética , Proteínas de Arabidopsis/inmunología , Inmunidad Innata , Quinasas de Proteína Quinasa Activadas por Mitógenos/genética , Quinasas de Proteína Quinasa Activadas por Mitógenos/inmunología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/inmunología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Pseudomonas syringae/genética , Pseudomonas syringae/inmunología

RESUMEN

The phytopathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri is responsible for the canker disease affecting citrus plants throughout the world. Here, we have evaluated the role of bacterial attachment and biofilm formation in leaf colonization during canker development on lemon leaves. Crystal violet staining and confocal laser scanning microscopy analysis of X. axonopodis pv. citri strains expressing the green fluorescent protein were used to evaluate attachment and biofilm formation on abiotic and biotic (leaf) surfaces. Wild-type X. axonopodis pv. citri attached to and formed a complex, structured biofilm on glass in minimal medium containing glucose. Similar attachment and structured biofilm formation also were seen on lemon leaves. An X. axonopodis pv. citri gumB mutant strain, defective in production of the extracellular polysaccharide xanthan, did not form a structured biofilm on either abiotic or biotic surfaces. In addition, the X. axonopodis pv. citri gumB showed reduced growth and survival on leaf surfaces and reduced disease symptoms. These findings suggest an important role for formation of biofilms in the epiphytic survival of X. axonopodis pv. citri prior to development of canker disease.

Asunto(s)

Biopelículas , Citrus/microbiología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Xanthomonas axonopodis/fisiología , Xanthomonas axonopodis/patogenicidad , Adhesión Bacteriana , Citrus/metabolismo , Hojas de la Planta/microbiología , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/biosíntesis , Virulencia , Xanthomonas axonopodis/genética

RESUMEN

Virulence of the black rot pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) is regulated by cell-cell signalling involving the diffusible signal factor DSF. Synthesis and perception of DSF require products of genes within the rpf cluster (for regulation of pathogenicity factors). RpfF directs DSF synthesis whereas RpfC and RpfG are involved in DSF perception. Here we have examined the role of the rpf/DSF system in biofilm formation in minimal medium using confocal laser-scanning microscopy of GFP-labelled bacteria. Wild-type Xcc formed microcolonies that developed into a structured biofilm. In contrast, an rpfF mutant (DSF-minus) and an rpfC mutant (DSF overproducer) formed only unstructured arrangements of bacteria. A gumB mutant, defective in xanthan biosynthesis, was also unable to develop the typical wild-type biofilm. Mixed cultures of gumB and rpfF mutants formed a typical biofilm in vitro. In contrast, in mixed cultures the rpfC mutant prevented the formation of the structured biofilm by the wild-type and did not restore wild-type biofilm phenotypes to gumB or rpfF mutants. These effects on structured biofilm formation were correlated with growth and disease development by Xcc strains in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. These findings suggest that DSF signalling is finely balanced during both biofilm formation and virulence.

Asunto(s)

Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Nicotiana/microbiología , Enfermedades de las Plantas/microbiología , Xanthomonas campestris/fisiología , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Biopelículas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Microscopía Confocal , Mutación , Hojas de la Planta/microbiología , Percepción de Quorum , Virulencia , Xanthomonas campestris/genética , Xanthomonas campestris/patogenicidad

RESUMEN

Xanthan is the major exopolysaccharide secreted by Xanthomonas spp. Despite its diverse roles in bacterial pathogenesis of plants, little is known about the real implication of this molecule in Xanthomonas pathogenesis. In this study we show that in contrast to Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris strain 8004 (wild type), the xanthan minus mutant (strain 8397) and the mutant strain 8396, which is producing truncated xanthan, fail to cause disease in both Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants. In contrast to wild type, 8397 and 8396 strains induce callose deposition in N. benthamiana and Arabidopsis plants. Interestingly, treatment with xanthan but not truncated xanthan, suppresses the accumulation of callose and enhances the susceptibility of both N. benthamiana and Arabidopsis plants to 8397 and 8396 mutant strains. Finally, in concordance, we also show that treatment with an inhibitor of callose deposition previous to infection induces susceptibility to 8397 and 8396 strains. Thus, xanthan suppression effect on callose deposition seems to be important for Xanthomonas infectivity.

Asunto(s)

Arabidopsis/microbiología , Glucanos/metabolismo , Nicotiana/microbiología , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/farmacología , Xanthomonas campestris/patogenicidad , Secuencia de Aminoácidos , Arabidopsis/efectos de los fármacos , Arabidopsis/fisiología , Desoxiglucosa/farmacología , Necrosis , Hojas de la Planta/anatomía & histología , Hojas de la Planta/efectos de los fármacos , Hojas de la Planta/microbiología , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/química , Polisacáridos Bacterianos/fisiología , Eliminación de Secuencia , Nicotiana/efectos de los fármacos , Nicotiana/fisiología