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PURPOSE: To (1) describe secular trends in gross motor coordination (GMC) scores by sex and age; (2) investigate GMC trends adjusted for concomitant secular trends in height, weight, and overall physical fitness; and (3) examine trends in children's frequencies within different GMC categories. METHOD: The sample comprises 1562 Peruvian children (690 in 2009 and 872 in 2019), aged 6-11 years, from Junín (a high-altitude region). GMC was assessed with the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder. Physical fitness was assessed with handgrip strength, standing long jump, and shuttle-run test. Height and weight were measured with standardized protocols. Analysis of variance, covariance, and logistic regression were used. RESULTS: A negative secular trend in GMC (based on raw scores) for boys and girls aged 6-8 years was observed. However, a positive trend was observed at 11 years of age but only in boys. Finally, there were no significant changes in the likelihood of children having below-normal GMC from 2009 to 2019. CONCLUSIONS: Secular trends in GMC were negative in Peruvian children, especially at 6-8 years of age. Further, body size and physical fitness trends did not affect the negative secular trend. A high prevalence of children had below-normal GMC in both 2009 and 2019.

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Physical activity is associated with a host of positive health outcomes and is shaped by both genetic and environmental factors. We aim to: (1) estimate sibling resemblance in two physical activity phenotypes [total number of steps∙day-1 and minutes for moderate steps per day (min∙day-1)]; and (2) investigate the joint associations of individual characteristics and shared natural environment with intra-pair sibling similarities in each phenotype. We sampled 247 biological siblings from 110 nuclear families, aged 6-17 years, from three Peruvian regions. Physical activity was measured using pedometers and body mass index was calculated. In general, non-significant variations in the intraclass correlation coefficients were found after adjustment for individual characteristics and geographical area for both phenotypes. Further, no significant differences were found between the three sib-ship types. Sister-sister pairs tended to take fewer steps than brother-brother (ß = -2908.75 ± 954.31). Older siblings tended to walk fewer steps (ß = -81.26 ± 19.83), whereas body mass index was not associated with physical activity. Siblings living at high-altitude and in the Amazon region had higher steps/day (ß = 2508.92 ± 737.94; ß = 2213.11 ± 776.63, respectively) compared with their peers living at sea-level. In general, we found no influence of sib-types, body mass index, and/or environment on the two physical activity phenotypes.

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The physical fitness of children is an important marker of health, and monitoring its temporal changes provides important information for developing interventions. We aimed to: (1) describe secular trends in physical fitness across age, within each sex, in Peruvian schoolchildren; and (2) verify if these trends are also present when adjusted for changes in height and weight. We sampled 1590 children (707 in 2009; 883 in 2019), aged 6-11 years. Physical fitness was assessed with four tests from the EUROFIT battery. ANOVA and ANCOVA statistical models were used. Results showed that with increasing age, girls and boys were significantly stronger in all PF tests, except for the case of flexibility in girls. In 2019, girls were stronger (handgrip) and more flexible than in 2009; but lower values were evident in standing long jumps in both sexes. Age-by-year interactions were statistically significant for agility in both sexes, with significant differences occurring at different ages. These trends did not change when adjusted for temporal changes in height and weight. Our research provides important data for local governments to implement public policies and practices to improve physical fitness levels in children.

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We estimated sibling resemblance in health-related physical fitness (PF) and examined how individual characteristics and shared natural environment accounted for sibling similarities. The sample comprised 656 sibling pairs and 102 triplets (6-15 years of age), from three geographical areas of Peru. PF components included morphological (waist circumference, sum of skinfolds), muscular (handgrip strength, standing long jump), and motor (shuttle-run). Body mass index (BMI) and somatic maturation were also assessed. In general, sibling intraclass correlations differed significantly across sib-ship types for waist circumference and handgrip strength but were the same for sum of skinfolds, standing long jump, and shuttle-run. Further, in general, both individual characteristics and geographical area of residence significantly influenced the magnitude of sibling resemblance as well as the mean levels of PF. In conclusion, individual characteristics and shared natural environment jointly influenced the expression of PF in Peruvian siblings, revealing the importance of these features when designing individualized programs promoting fitness.

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This study investigated the associations between biological and environmental factors and gross-motor coordination (GMC) in Peruvian children and adolescents. The sample comprised 7401 boys and girls, aged 6-14 years, recruited from three geographical regions: sea-level, Amazon and high-altitude. Biological variables included age, sex, height, BMI, physical fitness, stunting, and maturational status. Environmental influences included geographical region and school characteristics. Gross-motor coordination was tested with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder and the data analyzed by multilevel logistic regression. Results showed a high prevalence of below normal GMC scores. Sex, age, geographical area, biological maturation, BMI (normal versus overweight/obesity), and stunting were all significant predictors of GMC. There was also an interaction between age, sex, and geographical area indicating that older girls who lived at sea-level and high-altitude were more likely to display below normal GMC scores. The school context was less important in predicting GMC problems than the interplay between biological characteristics and geographical region. These results suggest that early identification, as well as educational and pediatric care interventions, are of importance in reducing below normal GMC among Peruvian children and adolescents.

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BACKGROUND: Gross motor coordination (GMC) is a potential correlate of lifestyle behaviours and health outcomes in childhood and adolescence. AIMS: The aim of this study was to examine how sex, age, biological maturation, overweight, stunting, and physical fitness are associated with GMC in children and adolescents from Peru, and to examine associations between geographical area of residence, school-level characteristics, and GMC. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The sample included 7408 subjects, aged 6-14 years, from sea level, Amazon and high-altitude regions of Peru. A composite marker of total coordination was derived by the sum of scores from each test (GMCT). Overweight was identified using BMI, and biological maturation, physical fitness, and stunting were assessed. School characteristics were obtained via an objective audit. RESULTS: Boys (ß = 12.23 ± 0.90) and older children (ß = 13.37 ± 0.64) had higher GMCT than girls and younger children, respectively. Overweight was associated with lower GMCT (ß = -5.23 ± 0.80), whereas fitness was positively associated with GMCT (ß = 6.30 ± 0.25). Biological maturation was not a predictor; however, stunting was negatively associated with GMCT (ß = -3.71 ± 1.56). Subjects living in the Amazon had higher GMCT than those at sea level (ß = 16.57 ± 4.73). Five of nine school-level predictors (number of students, playground area with obstacles, multi-sports roofed, frequency and duration of Physical Education classes) were significant predictors of GMCT. CONCLUSIONS: Child- and school-level variables were significantly associated with GMCT in this sample. These findings are important for the Peruvian community, especially school principals, councils and physical education teachers, helping them to define more efficient strategies and action plans to increase motor coordination in children.

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We use a multivariate multilevel model to study the links between physical fitness (PF) and gross motor coordination (GMC) and investigate the influence of predictors affecting their levels across age. We sampled 7918 Peruvians, aged 6-15 years, from sea-level, Amazon region and high-altitude. Composite markers of GMC and PF were derived (GMCz and PFz , respectively). BMI, biological maturation, and stunting were assessed. School characteristics were obtained via an objective audit. School contexts explained 35% of the associations between PFz and GMCz , whereas children's characteristics explained 65% of the total variation. On average, with increasing age, there was a greater increase in GMCz (ß = 0.79 ± 0.04, P < .001) than in PFz (ß = 0.15 ± 0.03, P < .001); boys outperformed girls (PFz , ß = 3.25 ± 0.08, P < .001; GMCz , ß = 1.58 ± 0.09, P < .001); those with lower BMI and ahead in their maturation had higher PFz (ß = -0.13 ± 0.01, P < .001; ß = 1.09 ± 0.05, P < .001, respectively) and GMCz (ß = -0.18 ± 0.01, P < .001; ß = 0.39 ± 0.06, P < .001, respectively) levels. Stunting was negatively related to PFz (ß = -0.30 ± 0.07; P < .001) and GMCz (ß = -0.30 ± 0.08, P < .001) and high-altitude Peruvians had significantly lower GMCz (ß = -0.93 ± 0.33, P < .001), and those living in the Amazon region had significantly higher PFz (ß = 1.21 ± 0.58, P < .001) compared to those living at sea level. A higher number of students was negatively related to PFz (ß = -0.016 ± 0.006, P < .001) and positively with GMCz (ß = 0.005 ± 0.003, P < .001); the duration of physical education classes was positively associated with PFz (ß = 0.70 ± 0.32, P < .001) and GMCz (ß = 0.46 ± 0.15, P < .001); and the existence of policies for physical activity was only negatively associated with GMCz (ß = -1.17 ± 0.34, P < .001). In conclusion, PFz and GMCz were positively correlated and child- and school-level traits predicted their levels.

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Stunting, defined as linear growth retardation, is a serious public health problem in developing countries. We aimed to (1) describe the prevalence of stunting in Peruvian youth living in three geographical regions, and to (2) determine height and physical fitness (PF) differences between stunted and normal-growth children across age and sex. We sampled 7918 subjects (7074 normal-growth and 844 stunted), aged 6-15 year, from sea-level, Amazon and high-altitude regions of Peru. PF was assessed with standardized tests, and stunting was computed following World Health Organization (WHO) standards. A two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) model was used. Results showed that stunting prevalence increased with age (from 6% at 6 year to 18.4% at 15 year in girls, and 9.3% at 6 year to 16.4% at 15 year in boys); was higher in boys (12.3%) than in girls (9.3%), and was higher in the Amazon region (25.3%), followed by high-altitude (24.3%) and sea-level (8.1%). Stunting had a negative overall impact on girls' and boys' statures. Further, the age-by-stunting interactions were statistically significant for both sexes, and significant differences in height varied to some degree across age. Stunted children performed worse in handgrip and standing long jump, but outperformed their normal-growth peers in shuttle-run (only boys), and in 12 min run. Further, significant differences in the age-by-stunting interaction occurred in all PF tests, varying to some degree across age. In conclusion, stunting significantly affects Peruvian youth's PF levels, and this influence is sex-, age- and PF test-specific.

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Abstract Objective: Children's differences in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels are not at random. This study investigates the relevance of individual- and school-level characteristics in explaining these differences. Methods: In total, 307 children (154 girls) aged 5-10 years, from 19 Portuguese schools, were sampled. Height and weight were measured, and body mass index was calculated. Time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was measured by accelerometry. Gross motor coordination was assessed with the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder battery and socio-economic status was obtained via the school social support system. School characteristics were obtained with an objective school audit. A multilevel analysis was used as implemented in Stata 15. Results: Schools explained 18.2% of the total variance in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, with the remainder being ascribed to children's distinct characteristics. Boys were more active (β = 29.59 ± 11.52, p < 0.05), and having higher gross motor coordination levels (β = 0.11 ± 0.04, p < 0.05) was positively associated with daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, whereas being older (β = −5.00 ± 1.57, p < 0.05) and having higher socio-economic status (β = −7.89 ± 3.12, p < 0.05) were negatively related with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. From the school-level correlates, only playground dimension was significantly associated with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels. Children from schools with medium (40 m2 to 69 m2) and large playground dimensions (≥70 m2) were less active than children with smaller playground dimensions (10 m2 to 39 m2). Conclusions: Variation in school children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is mostly explained by their individual characteristics; school characteristics also play a role but to a smaller degree. Future intervention programs to change this behavior should be more personalized, emphasizing mostly individual-level characteristics.

Resumo Objetivo As diferenças entre crianças na atividade física moderada a vigorosa não são aleatórias. Este estudo investiga a relevância das características em níveis individuais e escolares para explicar essas diferenças. Métodos Foram amostradas 307 crianças (154 meninas) entre 5 e 10 anos, de 19 escolas portuguesas. A estatura e o peso foram medidos e o índice de massa corporal foi calculado. O tempo gasto em atividade física moderada a vigorosa foi medido por acelerometria. A coordenação motora grossa foi avaliada com a bateria do Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder e o status socioeconômico foi obtido através do sistema de apoio social da escola. As características da escola foram obtidas através de uma auditoria escolar objetiva. Uma análise multinível foi utilizada como implantada no Stata 15. Resultados As escolas explicaram 18,2% da variância total da atividade física moderada a vigorosa, com o restante atribuído às diferentes características das crianças. Os meninos foram mais ativos (β = 29,59 ± 11,52, p < 0,05) e o fato de ter níveis mais altos de coordenação motora grossa (β = 0,11 ± 0,04, p < 0,05) foi positivamente associado com a atividade física moderada a vigorosa diária. Os mais velhos (β = -5,00 ± 1,57, p < 0,05) e com maior status socioeconômico (β = -7,89 ± 3,12, p < 0,05) foram negativamente relacionados com a atividade física moderada a vigorosa. Com base nos correlatos a nível escolar, apenas a dimensão da área recreativa foi significativamente associada aos níveis de atividade física moderada a vigorosa. As crianças das escolas com área recreativa média (40 m2 a 69 m2) e grande (≥ 70 m2) foram menos ativas do que as crianças com áreas recreativas com menores dimensões (10 m2 a 39 m2). Conclusões A variação na atividade física moderada a vigorosa de escolares é explicada principalmente por suas características individuais; as características da escola também desempenham um papel, mas em menor grau. Futuros programas de intervenção para mudar esse comportamento devem ser mais personalizados, enfatizar principalmente as características em nível individual.

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OBJECTIVE: Children's differences in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels are not at random. This study investigates the relevance of individual- and school-level characteristics in explaining these differences. METHODS: In total, 307 children (154 girls) aged 5-10 years, from 19 Portuguese schools, were sampled. Height and weight were measured, and body mass index was calculated. Time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was measured by accelerometry. Gross motor coordination was assessed with the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder battery and socio-economic status was obtained via the school social support system. School characteristics were obtained with an objective school audit. A multilevel analysis was used as implemented in Stata 15. RESULTS: Schools explained 18.2% of the total variance in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, with the remainder being ascribed to children's distinct characteristics. Boys were more active (ß=29.59±11.52, p<0.05), and having higher gross motor coordination levels (ß=0.11±0.04, p<0.05) was positively associated with daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, whereas being older (ß=-5.00±1.57, p<0.05) and having higher socio-economic status (ß=-7.89±3.12, p<0.05) were negatively related with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. From the school-level correlates, only playground dimension was significantly associated with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels. Children from schools with medium (40m2 to 69m2) and large playground dimensions (≥70m2) were less active than children with smaller playground dimensions (10m2 to 39m2). CONCLUSIONS: Variation in school children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is mostly explained by their individual characteristics; school characteristics also play a role but to a smaller degree. Future intervention programs to change this behavior should be more personalized, emphasizing mostly individual-level characteristics.

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OBJETIVE: To estimate the growth parameters of Peruvian children and adolescents living at different altitudes. METHODS: The sample comprised 10 795 Peruvian children and adolescents (5781 girls, aged 6-7 years) from sea level, the Amazon region, and high altitude. Height was measured with standardized techniques. Mathematical and biological growth parameters were estimated using the Preece-Baines growth model I. RESULTS: Sea-level children and adolescents experienced peak height velocity (PHV) at an earlier age (girls, 8.56 ± 2.37 years; boys, 12.03 ± 0.58 years) were taller at the time of PHV (girls, 144.1 ± 1.9 cm; boys, 154.3 ± 1.4 cm), had higher PHV (girls, 6.23 ± 3.87 cm/year; boys, 7.52 ± 2.31 cm/year), and had a taller estimated final height (girls, 154.2 ± 0.3 cm; boys, 166.3 ± 1.0 cm) compared to those living at high altitude (girls, 152.7 ± 0.7 cm; boys, 162.8 ± 0.8 cm) or in the Amazon region (152.1 ± 0.4 cm; boys, 162.2 ± 0.6 cm). Across all geographical areas, PHV occurred approximately 2 years earlier in girls (9.68 ± 0.99 years) than in boys (12.61 ± 0.42 years), their estimated PHV was 5.88 ± 1.92 cm/year vs 6.45 ± 1.09 cm/year, their size at PHV was 142.2 ± 1.4 cm vs 152.8 ± 0.7 cm, and their final adult height was estimated to be 153.1 ± 0.3 cm vs 164.2 ± 0.7 cm. CONCLUSIONS: Peruvian children and adolescents' physical growth timing and tempo were influenced by their living altitudes. Those living at sea level experienced an earlier age at PHV were taller at time of PHV, had a higher PHV, and had a taller estimated final height compared to those living at higher altitudes. Girls and boys also differed significantly in their growth parameters.

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Background and Aim: Overweight prevalence in children and adolescents shows great variability which is related to individual-level and environmental-level factors. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of and factors associated with overweight in Peruvian children and adolescents living at different altitudes. Methods: 8568 subjects, aged 6-16 y, from the sea level, Amazon, and high-altitude regions were sampled. Overweight was identified using BMI; biological maturation and physical fitness were measured; school characteristics were assessed via an objective audit. Results: Overweight prevalence decreased with age (28.3% at 6 y to 13.9% at 16 y); it was higher in girls (21.7%) than boys (19.8%) and was higher at the sea level (41.3%), compared with Amazon (18.8%) and high-altitude (6.3%) regions. Approximately 79% of the variance in overweight was explained by child-level characteristics. In Model 1, all child-level predictors were significant (p < 0.001); in Model 2, six out of nine added school-level predictors (number of students, existence of policies and practices for physical activity, multisports-roofed, duration of Physical Education classes, and extracurricular activities) were significant (p < 0.001); in Model 3, subjects living at high altitudes were less likely to be overweight than those living at the sea level. Conclusions: Child- and school-level variables played important roles in explaining overweight variation. This information should be taken into account when designing more efficient strategies to combat the overweight and obesity epidemic.

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Abstract Intermanual Transfer of Learning (IMTL) is the ability to learn a certain skill in an easier way with one hand after that skill has been learnt by the opposite hand(1). This research aimed to investigate IMTL in a Fine Manual Dexterity (FMD) task in subjects presenting different Hand Preference (HP). The sample comprised 882 right and left-handers, both genders, aged 6 to 95 years old. The Dutch Handedness Questionnaire(2) was used to assess HP and the Purdue Pegboard Test(3) evaluated FMD. Direction and intensity of HP, Direction of Transfer (DT), gender, age and nationality were analyzed. IMTL changed according to DT and age, tending to be asymmetric, holding high values in the direction of Non-Preferred Hand (NPH) to Preferred Hand (PH). Children had got a higher IMTL rather than youngsters, adults and old adults with significant differences in adults.(AU)

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Memory, namely visuomotor memory, is one of the most essential cognitive functions in elder's life. Among others, regular exercise seems to be an important factor in counteracting age-related-cognitive skills changes and thus prevent memory loss. However, in spite of the importance of visuomotor memory, the results of the scarce studies concerning the influence of exercise on this capacity are contradictory. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of physical exercise (PE) in visuomotor memory (VMM) of elderly adults in function of gender and age. VMM (time spent in performing the test and errors during the execution) of 74 subjects aged 60-90 years, being 36 practitioners of PE (P - mean age of 70.22 ± 0.90 years) and 38 non-practitioners (NP - mean age of 68.26 ± 1.12 years) were assessed by VMM Test. The results showed that: a) P presented a better performance in the time of performing the test and in the number of errors committed compared to NP; b) Gender and age did not influence the VMM performance. Data suggest that PE seems to have positive effect in the VMM, independently of gender and age

O presente estudo pretendeu investigar o efeito do exercício físico (EF) na memória visuomotora (MVM) de idosos em função do sexo e da idade. Foram testados 74 participantes com idades entre os 60 e os 90 anos, sendo 36 praticantes de EF (70,22 ± 0,90 anos) e 38 não praticantes (68,26 ± 1,12 anos). A MVM foi avaliada através do teste de Thinus et al., sendo registado o tempo gasto na execução do teste e o número de erros durante a sua execução. Através das ANOVAs grupo x género e grupo x idade, os resultados demostraram um efeito significativo do grupo, mas não do sexo e da idade, quer para o tempo de desempenho quer para os erros. Os praticantes apresentaram menores tempos e menos erros do que os não praticantes. Conclui-se que o EF apresenta um efeito positivo na MVM, independentemente do sexo e da idade. Sugerem-se estudos longitudinais com um número amostral superior e incluindo a aplicação de um programa de EF, para melhor compreender o comportamento da MVM dos idosos

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