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Should the engagement of all health care providers in all aspects of programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis (PMDT) become a priority in the national strategic plans for tuberculosis (TB), progress towards universal access to diagnosis, treatment and care of drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) would accelerate. This would be especially crucial in countries where the private sector is a significant provider of health services. Proven successful interventions to engage all health care providers and partners in the cascade of prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care of DR-TB patients need to be urgently scaled up. Such engagement should not be limited to the diagnosis and treatment of DR-TB, but extended also to all the aspects of PMDT, including approaches ensuring that patient-centred care, social support, pharmacovigilance and surveillance. Integral to the End TB Strategy, PMDT should be embedded in all public-private mix initiatives for TB and vice versa.

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BACKGROUND: Public-private mix (PPM) for tuberculosis (TB) care implies working with all relevant public and private health care providers to ensure that high-quality TB care is offered to all who need it. Despite significant global progress in PPM expansion and in TB control in general, a large proportion of care providers in high-incidence countries remain unengaged, and one third of the estimated TB cases go unnotified or undetected. OBJECTIVE: To present a global perspective on the progress and prospects of expanding PPM for TB care and prevention. DISCUSSION: People with TB in high-incidence countries approach diverse care providers. Productive working collaborations between national TB programmes and other care providers have been scaled up in many countries. However, a large proportion of private providers still do not participate in collaboration or follow recommended TB management practices. Persisting challenges include weak commitment and capacity to work together within both public and private sectors, poor enforcement of essential regulations and inadequate investments. CONCLUSION: Scaling up PPM programmes is critical to ending the TB epidemic. Investing in implementing bold policies that harness public and private sector capacity, combine collaborative and regulatory approaches and promote modern digital tools to simplify care delivery is the logical way forward.

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Passive case finding, the detection of tuberculosis (TB) cases among persons presenting to health facilities with symptoms suggestive of TB, has remained the principal public health approach for TB diagnosis. While this approach, in combination with improved treatment, has led to substantial global progress, the overall epidemiological impact has been inadequate. Stagnating case notifications and sluggish decline in incidence prompt the pursuit of a more active approach to TB case detection. Screening among contacts of TB patients and people living with human immunodeficiency virus infection, long recommended, needs scaling up. Screening in other risk groups may also be considered, depending on the epidemiological situation. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recently produced recommendations on systematic screening for active TB, which set out principles and provide guidance on the prioritisation of risk groups for screening and choice of screening and diagnostic algorithms. With a view to help translate WHO recommendations into practice, this concluding article of the State of the Art series discusses programmatic approaches. Published literature is scanty. However, considerable field experience exists to draw important lessons. Cautioning against a hasty pursuit of active case finding, the article stresses that programmatic implementation of TB screening requires a systematic approach. Important considerations should include setting clear goals and objectives based on a thorough assessment of the situation; considering the place of TB screening in the overall approach to enhancing TB detection; identifying and prioritising risk groups; choosing appropriate screening and diagnostic algorithms; and pursuing setting-specific implementation strategies with engagement of relevant partners, due attention to ethical considerations and built-in monitoring and evaluation.

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The impact of current interventions to improve early detection of tuberculosis (TB) seems to have been saturated. Case detection trends have stagnated. TB incidence is falling in most settings worldwide, but the rate of decline is far lower than expected. There is growing evidence from national TB prevalence surveys and other research of a large pool of undetected TB in the community. Intensified efforts to further break down access barriers and scale up new and rapid diagnostic tools are likely to improve the situation. However, will these be enough? Or do we also need to reach out more towards people who do not actively seek care with well-recognisable TB symptoms? There have recently been calls to revisit TB screening, particularly in high-risk groups. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends screening for TB in people with human immunodeficiency virus infection and in close TB contacts. Should other risk groups also be screened systematically? Could mass, community-wide screening, which the WHO has discouraged over the past four decades, be of benefit in some situations? If so, what screening tools and approaches should be used? The WHO is in the process of seeking answers to these questions and developing guidelines on systematic screening for active TB. In this article, we present the rationale, definitions and key considerations underpinning this process.

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Contact investigation contributes to improving early case detection of tuberculosis (TB). However, its implementation in low-income, high TB burden countries remains limited. A multicountry survey of contact investigation policies was conducted to evaluate the extent of their implementation. Our results showed significant heterogeneity in definitions and procedures, with over 25% of countries unable to provide a clear definition of a contact. Estimates indicate that routine implementation of contact investigation policies globally could help detection of over a quarter of a million cases. International guidelines should be developed to support national TB programmes to initiate and scale up systematic TB contact investigation.

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OBJECTIVE: To quantify the impact of cash transfer and microfinance interventions on a selected list of tuberculosis (TB) risk factors and assess their potential role in supporting TB control. DATA SOURCE: Published and unpublished references identified from clinical and social electronic databases, grey literature and web sites. METHODS: Eligible interventions had to be conducted in middle- or low-income countries and document an impact evaluation on any of the following outcomes: 1) TB or other respiratory infections; 2) household socio-economic position; and 3) factors mediating the association between low household socio-economic position and TB, including inadequate health-seeking behaviours, food insecurity and biological TB risk factors such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and adult malnutrition. Interventions targeting special populations were excluded. RESULTS: Fifteen cash transfer schemes (four unconditional and 11 conditional) and seven microfinance programmes met the eligibility criteria. No intervention addressed TB or any other respiratory infection. Of 11 cash transfer and four microfinance interventions, respectively seven and four reported a positive impact on indicators of economic well-being. A positive impact on household food security was documented in respectively eight of nine and three of five cash transfer and microfinance interventions. Improved health care access was documented respectively in 10 of 12 cash transfer and four of five microfinance interventions. The only intervention evaluating impact on HIV incidence was a microfinance project that found no effect. No cash transfer or microfinance interventions had an impact on adult malnutrition. CONCLUSIONS: Cash transfer and microfinance interventions can positively impact TB risk factors. Evaluation studies are urgently needed to assess the impact of these social protection interventions on actual TB indicators.

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SETTING: India's Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) implemented an intensified scale-up of public-private mix (PPM) DOTS covering 50 million population in 14 major cities. OBJECTIVES: To describe the processes and outcomes of the systems approach adopted. METHODS: National schemes for engagement with different providers were applied. Additional human resources were provided to assist with implementation. All health care providers were mapped, a concise training module and advocacy kit were developed, and sensitisation and training activities were conducted. National advocacy efforts complemented local initiatives. Data were captured in a PPM-focused surveillance system. RESULTS: Intensified PPM resulted in a 12% increase in notification of new smear-positive pulmonary TB cases. Contribution to case notification by providers varied widely: health department 67%, medical colleges 16%, private practitioners 6%, non-government organisations 7%, and the rest 4%. Treatment success was above the 85% target for all sectors combined. Strong public sector implementation and differentiation of roles and responsibilities among providers played major roles. The lessons learnt have been used by the RNTCP to inform future policy development. CONCLUSION: The systems approach to the intensified PPM scale-up used in the 14 cities was productive. However, many challenges and barriers to scale-up of PPM DOTS in India remain.

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Globally, the incidence of tuberculosis (TB) is declining very slowly, and the noncommunicable disease (NCD) burden for many countries is steadily increasing. Several NCDs, such as diabetes mellitus, alcohol use disorders and smoking-related conditions, are responsible for a significant proportion of TB cases globally, and in the European region, represent a larger attributable fraction for TB disease than HIV. Concrete steps are needed to address NCDs and their risk factors. We reviewed published studies involving TB and NCDs, and present a review and discussion of how they are linked, the implications for case detection and management, and how prevention efforts may be strengthened by integration of services. These NCDs put patients at increased risk for developing TB and at risk for poor treatment outcomes. However, they also present an opportunity to provide better care through increased case-detection activities, improved clinical management and better access to care for both TB and NCDs. Hastening the global decline in TB incidence may be assisted by strengthening these types of activities.

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SETTING: Bangalore City, India. OBJECTIVES: To assess the socio-economic profile, health-seeking behaviour and costs related to tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis and treatment among patients treated under the Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP). DESIGN: All 1106 new TB patients registered for treatment under the RNTCP in the second quarter of 2005 participated. Interviews at the beginning and at the end of treatment were conducted. A convenience sample of 32 patients treated outside the RNTCP also participated. RESULTS: Among the TB patients, respectively 50% and 39% were from low and middle standard of living (SL) households, and 77% were from households with a per capita income of less than US$1 per day. The first health contact was with a private practitioner in the case of >70% of patients. Mean patient delay was low, at 21 days, but the mean health system delay was 52 days. The average cost incurred by patients before treatment in the RNTCP was US$145, and during treatment it was US$21. Costs as a proportion of annual household income per capita were 53% for people from low SL households and 41% for those from other households. Costs during treatment faced by patients treated outside the RNTCP averaged US$127. CONCLUSION: Patients treated under the RNTCP through a public-private mix approach were predominantly poor. Many of them experienced considerable health expenditures before starting treatment. Additional efforts are required to reduce the delays and the number of health care providers consulted, and to ensure that patients are shifted to subsidised treatment within the RNTCP.

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SETTING: Bangalore City, India. OBJECTIVES: To assess the cost and cost-effectiveness of public-private mix (PPM) for tuberculosis (TB) care and control when implemented on a large scale. DESIGN: DOTS implementation under the Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) began in 1999, PPM was introduced in mid-2001 and a second phase of intensified PPM began in 2003. Data on the costs and effects of TB treatment from 1999 to 2005 were collected and used to compare the two distinct phases of PPM with a scenario of no PPM. Costs were assessed in 2005 $US for public and private providers, patients and patient attendants. Sources of data included expenditure records, medical records, interviews with staff and patient surveys. Effectiveness was measured as the number of cases successfully treated. RESULTS: When PPM was implemented, total provider costs increased in proportion to the number of successfully treated TB cases. The average cost per patient treated from the provider perspective when PPM was implemented was stable, at US$69, in the intensified phase compared with US$71 pre-PPM. PPM resulted in the shift of an estimated 7200 patients from non-DOTS to DOTS treatment over 5 years. PPM implementation substantially reduced costs to patients, such that the average societal cost per patient successfully treated fell from US$154 to US$132 in the 4 years following the initiation of PPM. CONCLUSION: Implementation of PPM on a large scale in an urban setting can be cost-effective, and considerably reduces the financial burden of TB for patients.

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SETTING: Nairobi, the capital of Kenya. OBJECTIVE: To promote standardised tuberculosis (TB) care by private health providers and links with the public sector. DESIGN AND METHODS: A description of the results of interventions aimed at engaging private health providers in TB care and control in Nairobi. Participating providers are supported to provide TB care that conforms to national guidelines. The standard surveillance tools are used for programme monitoring and evaluation. RESULTS: By the end of 2006, 26 of 46 (57%) private hospitals and nursing homes were engaged. TB cases reported by private providers increased from 469 in 2002 to 1740 in 2006. The treatment success rate for smear-positive pulmonary TB treated by private providers ranged from 76% to 85% between 2002 and 2005. Of the 1740 TB patients notified by the private sector in 2006, 732 (42%) were tested for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), of whom 372 (51%) were positive. Of the 372 HIV-positive TB patients, 227 (61%) were provided with cotrimoxazole preventive treatment (CPT) and 136 (37%) with antiretroviral treatment (ART). CONCLUSION: Private providers can be engaged to provide TB-HIV care conforming to national norms. The challenges include providing diagnostics, CPT and ART and the capacity to train and supervise these providers.

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The World Health Organization and the Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) in India have advocated public-private mix as essential for tuberculosis (TB) control. We conducted a cross-sectional sample survey of private providers (with various qualifications) in Ujjain District, India, to study willingness and motivation to collaborate. Most providers were aware of the RNTCP and had referred patients there. All were willing to collaborate, although the areas for collaboration varied between urban and rural providers. General altruism and an opportunity to collaborate with the government were the main motivations. None of the providers had ever been contacted by the RNTCP. Enthusiasm in the private sector has not been effectively exploited by the RNTCP.

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This article assesses whether social franchising of tuberculosis (TB) services in Myanmar has succeeded in providing quality treatment while ensuring equity in access and financial protection for poor patients. Newly diagnosed TB patients receiving treatment from private general practitioners (GPs) belonging to the franchise were identified. They were interviewed about social conditions, health seeking and health care costs at the time of starting treatment and again after 6 months follow-up. Routine data were used to ascertain clinical outcomes as well as to monitor trends in case notification. The franchisees contributed 2097 (21 percent) of the total 9951 total new sputum smear-positive pulmonary cases notified to the national TB programme in the study townships. The treatment success rate for new smear-positive cases was 84 percent, close to the World Health Organization target of 85 percent and similar to the treatment success of 81 percent in the national TB programme in Myanmar. People from the lower socio-economic groups represented 68 percent of the TB patients who access care in the franchise. Financial burden related to direct and indirect health care costs for tuberculosis was high, especially among the poor. Patients belonging to lower socio-economic groups incurred on average costs equivalent to 68 percent of annual per capita household income, with a median of 28 percent. However, 83 percent of all costs were incurred before starting treatment in the franchise, while 'shopping' for care. During treatment in the franchise, the cost of care was relatively low, corresponding to a median proportion of annual per capita income of 3 percent for people from lower socio-economic groups. This study shows that highly subsidized TB care delivered through a social franchise scheme in the private sector in Myanmar helped reach the poor with quality services, while partly protecting them from high health care expenditure. Extended outreach to others parts of the private sector may reduce diagnostic delay and patient costs further. (AU)

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SETTING: Mandalay Division, Myanmar. AIM: To assess the effect of an initiative to involve private general practitioners (GPs) in the National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP) and to identify lessons learnt for public-private mix scale-up. METHODS: Source of referral/diagnosis and place of treatment were included in the routine recording and reporting systems to enable disaggregated analysis of the contribution of GPs to case notification and treatment outcomes. Case notification trends were compared between the intervention and control areas over a 4-year period. RESULTS: Private GPs contributed 44% of new smear-positive cases registered during the study period (July 2002-December 2004). The notification of new sputum smear-positive TB in the study area increased by 85% between the year prior to the GP involvement and 2 years after (from 46 to 85/100,000). Case notification increased by 57% in the control townships and by 42% in all of Mandalay Division. The treatment success rate for new smear-positive cases treated by GPs was 90%. CONCLUSIONS: The involvement of private GPs substantially increased TB case notification, while a high treatment success rate was maintained. Success factors include a well-developed local medical association branch, strong managerial support, training and supervision by the public sector and provision of drugs and consumables free of charge by the NTP.

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SETTING: Mumbai, India. OBJECTIVES: To assess impact on case notification and treatment outcome of a public-private mix approach for tuberculosis (TB) control involving private providers, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and public providers not previously involved in the Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP). METHODS: Under the stewardship of the RNTCP, providers were allocated different roles in referral, diagnosis, treatment initiation, directly observed treatment (DOT) provision, training and supervision. Referral forms were introduced and RNTCP registers were adapted to enable monitoring of case notification by different providers and cohort analysis disaggregated by provider type. RESULTS: A fraction of all non-RNTCP providers had become actively involved by the end of 2003. These providers contributed 2145 new smear-positive cases in 2003, an increment of 40% above the 5397 cases detected in RNTCP facilities. The treatment success rate for new smear-positive cohorts for 2002 was 85% in RNTCP facilities, 81% in private clinics, 88% in medical colleges, 91% in NGOs and 73% in the TB hospital (where the death rate was 16%). CONCLUSION: Active involvement of some key public and private providers can increase case notification substantially while maintaining acceptable treatment outcomes. The impact can be expected to be even larger when all health providers have been involved.

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Although a seventy per cent excess of male over female TB cases are reported globally each year, the reasons for this difference are unclear. Generally, women in poor countries confront more barriers than men in accessing health care services. Yet, research is lacking to explain the impact of gender inequalities in access to care on reported sex ratios for TB. A review of the limited available literature and field visits to TB programmes offered insights and suggested a framework to study gender differentials in TB. This paper considers the role of gender at various steps in effective TB care. A research strategy to study and account for gender differences in TB control is proposed.

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