RESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The pharmaceutical industry is heavily regulated. Partly for this reason, new drugs generally take over 10 years from the product development stage to market entry. Although regulations affect the pharmaceutical industry over a long period, previous studies investigating the impact of new regulatory policies have usually focused on the short period before and after implementing that policy. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine whether and how significantly regulatory policies affect long-term innovation in the pharmaceutical industry in Korea. METHODS: This study focused on three significant regulatory policies: the introduction of the product patent system, changes in the Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) system, and the Drug Expenditure Rationalization Plan (DERP). The study used interrupted time series (ITS) analysis to investigate the long-term impacts of the policies before and after implementation. RESULTS: Our results show that introducing the product patent system in 1987 significantly increased the number of Korean patent applications. The effect of the revised GMP policies was also statistically significant, both before and after implementation and between pre-emptive companies and non-pre-emptive ones. However, due to the companies' negotiations with the regulatory authorities or the regulatory system that links drug approval and price evaluation, the DERP did not significantly delay new drug registration in Korea. CONCLUSION: This study showed that the policies of the product patent system, GMP policies, and DERP regulations have significantly encouraged pharmaceutical companies to strive to meet regulatory requirements and promote innovation in Korea. The study suggests that it is necessary for companies to pre-emptively respond to systemic changes in development and production strategies to deal with regulatory changes and achieve sustainable growth. Also, our study results indicate that since government policies motivate the innovative system of the pharmaceutical industry, governmental authorities, when formulating pharmaceutical policies, need to consider the impact on the long-term innovation of the industry.
Asunto(s)
Aprobación de Drogas , Industria Farmacéutica , Comercio , Estudios Longitudinales , República de CoreaRESUMEN
In a previous study, Quercetin-3-O-ß-D-glucuronopyranoside (QGC) has anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects in vivo. QGC is a flavonoid glucoside extracted from Rumex Aquaticus. We investigated the downstream target proteins involved in IL-1ß-stimulated ROS production and the ability of QGC to inhibit ROS production. Cell viability was determined using the MTT reduction assay. Western blot analysis was performed with antibodies to investigate the activation of three MAPKs, NF-κB, and phosphorylated IκB-α (pIB), and the expression of COX-2. 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin diacetate was used to detect the generation of intracellular ROS species. When the cells were exposed to media containing IL-1ß for 18 h, cell viability was not affected. QGC did not reduce the COX-2 expression induced by IL-1ß. However; QGC attenuated the production of intracellular ROS induced by IL-1ß. IL-1ß increased the expression of ERK, p38 MAPK, and pIB, and nuclear translocation of NF-κB were recovered by the ROS scavenger N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and QGC, but not by the NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenylene iodonium. Pretreatment of cells with the ERK inhibitor PD98059, the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB202190, NAC, and QGC attenuated nuclear translocation of NF-κB and activation of pIB. QGC has a scavenging effect on cytokine-induced ROS production, thereby preventing its downstream effects, nuclear translocation of NF-κB, and activation of pIB is mediated by activation of ERK and p38 MAPK, although QGC does not inhibit IL-1ß-stimulated COX-2 expression in feline esophageal epithelial cells. The data suggest that QGC exerts anti-oxidative effects and inhibitory effects against esophageal epithelial cells signals by the action of IL-1ß treatment.
Asunto(s)
Antioxidantes/farmacología , Células Epiteliales/efectos de los fármacos , Interleucina-1beta/metabolismo , Quercetina/análogos & derivados , Especies Reactivas de Oxígeno/metabolismo , Acetilcisteína/farmacología , Animales , Gatos , Supervivencia Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Células Cultivadas , Ciclooxigenasa 2/metabolismo , Mucosa Esofágica/citología , Flavonoides/farmacología , Fluoresceínas/metabolismo , Quinasa I-kappa B/metabolismo , Imidazoles/farmacología , Proteínas Quinasas Activadas por Mitógenos/metabolismo , FN-kappa B/metabolismo , Fosforilación , Piridinas/farmacología , Quercetina/farmacología , Rumex/química , Transducción de SeñalRESUMEN
The Rumex Aquaticus Herba extract containing quercetin-3-ß-D-glucuronopyranoside (ECQ) has been reported to exhibit various pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects. This plant has been traditionally used for the treatment of diarrhea, disinfestation, edema and jaundice, and as an antipyretic drug. The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of ECQ to protect against oxidative damage and to determine its signaling mechanism in AGS cells. The protein expressions of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) were measured by Western blots. Cell viability was measured by MTT assay. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were measured using 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate. Glutathione peroxidase levels were measured using kits. The protein expressions of HO-1 and its upstream mediator, Nrf2, increased after ECQ treatment. The HO-1 inhibitor, ZnPP, repressed the protective effect of ECQ on H2O2-induced cell damage. We found that LY294002, a specific PI3 K/Akt inhibitor, suppressed ECQ-induced HO-1 expression. ECQ significantly attenuated H2O2-induced cytotoxicity and ROS generation. Also, ECQ enhanced the antioxidant enzyme activities of glutathione peroxidase. These results suggest that ECQ exerts a cytoprotective effect against H2O2-induced oxidative stress by upregulation of Nrf2/HO-1 via the PI3 K/Akt pathway.
Asunto(s)
Citoprotección/efectos de los fármacos , Peróxido de Hidrógeno/toxicidad , Estrés Oxidativo/efectos de los fármacos , Extractos Vegetales/farmacología , Rumex , Línea Celular , Supervivencia Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Supervivencia Celular/fisiología , Citoprotección/fisiología , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Humanos , Estrés Oxidativo/fisiología , Extractos Vegetales/aislamiento & purificación , Especies Reactivas de Oxígeno/antagonistas & inhibidores , Especies Reactivas de Oxígeno/metabolismoRESUMEN
The effects of ceremide analogues on esophagitis and gastritis in rats were examined. Gastritis induced by indomethacin was significantly reduced after CY3325 and CY3723 treatment, whereas other analogues had no effect. The amount of malondialdehyde in gastritis was significantly reduced by CY3325 or CY 3723. CY3325 or CY 3723 decreased the glutathione levels in gastritis. The myeloperoxidase level in gastritis is increased, and its increment was decreased by CY3325 and CY3723. In reflux esophagitis, the ulceration was decreased by CY3325, CY3723. The gastric volume and acid output are reduced, whereas the pH value is increased by CY3325 or CY3723 after esophagitis. These results suggest that ceramide analogues, CY3325 and CY3723, can prevent the development of gastritis and reflux esophagitis in rats.