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Recent contradictory data has renewed discussion regarding the existence of adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) in humans, i.e., the continued production of new neurons in the brain after birth. The present review revisits the debate of AHN in humans from a historical point of view in the face of contradictory evidence, analyzing the methods employed to investigate this phenomenon. Thus, to date, of the 57 studies performed in humans that we reviewed, 84% (48) concluded in favor of the presence of newborn neurons in the human adult hippocampus. Besides quality of the tissue (such as postmortem intervals below 26hours as well as tissue conservation and fixation), considerations for assessing and quantify AHN in the human brain require the use of stereology and toxicological analyses of clinical data of the patient.

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Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most prescribed antidepressant treatment for treat major depressive disorders. Despite their effectiveness, only 30% of SSRI-treated patients reach remission of depressive symptoms. SSRIs by inhibiting the serotonin transporter present some limits with residual symptoms. Increasing not only serotonin but also norepinephrine and dopamine levels in limbic areas seems to improve remission. Anatomical relationships across serotoninergic, dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems suggest tight reciprocal regulations among them. This review attempts to present, from acute to chronic administration the consequences of SSRI administration on monoaminergic neurotransmission. The serotonin neurons located in the raphe nucleus (RN) are connected to the locus coeruleus (locus coeruleus), the key structure of norepinephrine synthesis, through GABAergic-inhibiting interneurons. Activation of the 5-HT2A receptors expressed on GABAergic interneurons following SERT-inhibition induces an increase in serotonin leading to inhibitory effect on NE release. Similarly, the serotonin neurons exert negative regulation on dopaminergic neurons from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) through a GABAergic interneuron. These interneurons express the 5-HT2C and 5-HT3 receptors inducing an inhibitory effect of 5-HT on DA release. Positive reciprocal connections are also observed through direct projections from the locus coeruleus to the RN and from the VTA to the RN through α1 and D2 receptors respectively, both stimulating the serotoninergic activity. Acute SSRI treatment induces only a slight increase in 5-HT levels in limbic areas due to the activation of presynaptic 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B autoreceptors counteracting the effects of the transporter blockade. No change in NE levels and a small decrease in the dopaminergic neurotransmission is also observed. These weak changes in monoamine in the limbic areas after acute SSRI treatment seems to be one of key point involved in the onset of action. Following desensitization of the 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B autoreceptors, chronic SSRI treatment induces a large increase in the 5-HT neurotransmission. Changes in 5-HT levels at the limbic areas results in a decrease in NE transmission and an increase in DA transmission through an increase in the post-synaptic D2 receptors sensitivity and not from a change in DA levels, which is mainly due to a desensitization of the 5-HT2A receptor. The observed decrease of NE neurotransmission could explain some limits of the SSRI therapy and the interest to activate NE system for producing more robust effects. On the other hand, the D2 sensitization, especially in the nucleus accumbens, stimulates the motivation behavior as well as remission of anhedonia considering the major role of DA release in this structure. Finally, we need to take into account the key role of each monoaminergic neurotransmission to reach remission. Targeting only one system will limit the therapeutic effectiveness. Clinical evidences, including the STAR*D studies, confirmed this by an increase of the remission rate following the mobilization of several monoaminergic transmissions. However, these combinations cannot constitute first line of treatment considering the observed increase of side effects. Such an approach should be adapted to each patient in regard to its particular symptoms as well as clinical history. The next generation of antidepressant therapy will need to take into consideration the interconnections and the interrelation between the monoaminergic systems.

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Unlike classic serotonergic antidepressant drugs, ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, exhibits a rapid and persistent antidepressant (AD) activity, at sub-anaesthetic doses in treatment-resistant depressed patients and in preclinical studies in rodents. The mechanisms mediating this activity are unclear. Here, we assessed the role of the brain serotonergic system in the AD-like activity of an acute sub-anaesthetic ketamine dose. We compared ketamine and fluoxetine responses in several behavioral tests currently used to predict anxiolytic/antidepressant-like potential in rodents. We also measured their effects on extracellular serotonin levels [5-HT]ext in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFCx) and brainstem dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), a serotonergic nucleus involved in emotional behavior, and on 5-HT cell firing in the DRN in highly anxious BALB/cJ mice. Ketamine (10 mg/kg i.p.) had no anxiolytic-like effect, but displayed a long lasting AD-like activity, i.e., 24 h post-administration, compared to fluoxetine (18 mg/kg i.p.). Ketamine (144%) and fluoxetine (171%) increased mPFCx [5-HT]ext compared to vehicle. Ketamine-induced AD-like effect was abolished by a tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor, para-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) pointing out the role of the 5-HT system in its behavioral activity. Interestingly, increase in cortical [5-HT]ext following intra-mPFCx ketamine bilateral injection (0.25 µg/side) was correlated with its AD-like activity as measured on swimming duration in the FST in the same mice. Furthermore, pre-treatment with a selective AMPA receptor antagonist (intra-DRN NBQX) blunted the effects of intra-mPFCx ketamine on both the swimming duration in the FST and mPFCx [5-HT]ext suggesting that the AD-like activity of ketamine required activation of DRN AMPA receptors and recruited the prefrontal cortex/brainstem DRN neural circuit in BALB/c mice. These results confirm a key role of cortical 5-HT release in ketamine's AD-like activity following the blockade of glutamatergic NMDA receptors. Tight interactions between mPFCx glutamatergic and serotonergic systems may explain the differences in this activity between ketamine and fluoxetine in vivo. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Ionotropic glutamate receptors'.

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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are extensively used for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). SSRIs are defined as indirect receptor agonists since the activation of postsynaptic receptors is a consequence of an increase in extracellular concentrations of serotonin (5-HT) mediated by the blockade of serotonin transporter. The activation of some serotoninergic receptors (5-HT1A, post-synaptic, 5-HT1B post-synaptic, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT4), but not all (5-HT1A, pre-synaptic, 5-HT1B pre-synaptic, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C, 5-HT3, and probably 5-HT6), induces anxiolytic/antidepressive - like effects. Targetting specifically some of them could potentially improve the onset of action and/or efficacy and/or prevent MD relapse. Vortioxetine (Brintellix, 1- [2-(2,4-dimethylphenyl-sulfanyl)-phenyl]-piperazine) is a novel multi-target antidepressant drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and by European Medicines Agency. Its properties are markedly different from the extensively prescribed SSRIs. Compared to the SSRIs, vortioxetine is defined as a multimodal antidepressant drug since it is not only a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, but also a 5-HT1D, 5-HT3, 5-HT7 receptor antagonist, 5-HT1B receptor partial agonist and 5-HT1A receptor agonist. This specific pharmacological profile enables vortioxetine to affect not only the serotoninergic and noradrenergic systems, but also the histaminergic, cholinergic, gamma-butyric acid (GABA) ergic and glutamatergic ones. Thus, vortioxetine not only induces antidepressant-like or anxiolytic-like activity but also improves cognitive parameters in several animal models. Indeed, vortioxetine was shown to improve working memory, episodic memory, cognitive flexibility and spatial memory in young adult rodents and also in old animal models. These specific effects of the vortioxetine are of interest considering that cognitive dysfunction is a common comorbidity to MDD. Altogether, even though this molecule still needs to be investigated further, especially in the insufficient-response to antidepressant drugs, vortioxetine is already an innovative therapeutic option for the treatment of major depression.

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Fourteen horses (7 treated with orgotein and 7 treated with a placebo) with navicular disease were studied on a double blind basis. All 14 horses had clinical and radiographic evidence of navicular disease. Orgotein and the placebo were administered by juxtabursal injection. Of the 7 orgotein-treated horses, 3 responded but none of the 7 placebo-treated horses responded. The difference was statistically significant (P less than 0.05).

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Caecal fluid samples collected 8 and 24 hours after carbohydrate overload were quantitatively compared to control samples in terms of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Concomitant increases in lactic acid-producing bacteria and decreases in Gram negative bacteria were substantiated during the onset of acute laminitis. Progressive decreases in caecal fluid pH were also quantitated. Although endotoxin assays of caecal fluid and blood were not done, the caecal flora changes suggest its presence during the onset of acute laminitis.

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The characteristics of a series of equine laminitis cases were compared with that of other Equidae examined at the University of Missouri Veterinary Hospital and Clinic during May, 1965 through December, 1971. The model age for ponies with laminitis was 7-9 years and for all other cases the model age was 4-6 years. Also the predominant age for mares was 4-6 years and for males was 7-9 years. After controlling for age and breed differences, there were significantly fewer castrated males among the affected males than expected (P small than 0.02), indicating that hormonal factors may play a role in laminitis. Ponies had a significantly greater risk of laminitis (P smaller than 0.001) and their relative risk was 4.3 times greater than all other Equidae combined. There were more laminitis cases diagnosed during May than during other months.

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