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This study was designed to examine the attitudes of student athletes toward the use of painkilling drugs. A total of 563 student athletes at two Division One NCAA universities were surveyed in this study. Twenty-nine percent of the student athletes (n = 165) reported that they felt there is nothing wrong with using painkilling drugs on the day of competition (when injured) to cope with pain. These student athletes reported that they would use painkilling drugs to mask injury in order to continue to participate in their sport. Student athletes' perceptions of societal norms and expectations related to competition, and the degree of control student athletes perceive that they have when deciding to use painkillers, may be important determinants governing the extent to which they may be at risk for abusing these substances. Research on planned behavior and reasoned action against suggests that salient beliefs affect intentions and subsequent behaviors, either through attitudes or subjective norms, or the degree of (perceived) control that an individual feels he/she has over the behavior [1, 2]. This theoretical model was used as a guiding framework for analyzing the attitudes of college athletes toward painkilling drugs. Recommendations are included in this article for coaches, educators, team physicians, team trainers, and administrators who are concerned about controlling the use and abuse of painkilling drugs by student athletes.

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Theories related to planned behavior and reasoned action have included an individual's attitude as an important factor in the formation of behavioral intentions and behaviors. Research on this topic suggests that salient beliefs affect intentions and subsequent behaviors, either through attitudes or subjective norms, or the degree of (perceived) control that an individual feels he/she has over the behavior. This study was designed to examine the relative importance of selected attitude variables in describing a profile of athletes who were at risk for using anabolic steroids, human grown hormone, amphetamines, cocaine, and marijuana. Responses from 563 student athletes at two Division One NCAA universities were used in the study. The results of this study suggest that subjective norms, based on the influence of drug testing, peer influence, and a fear of detection are significant factors that influence the decisions of student athletes related to using banned substances. In this article characteristics of at-risk athletes are presented with recommendations for drug education programs for student athletes.

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UNLABELLED: Anecdotal reports of "roid rage" and violent crimes by androgenic steroid users have brought attention to the relationship between anabolic steroid use and angry outbursts. However, testosterone effects on human aggression remain controversial. Previous studies have been criticized because of the low androgen doses, lack of placebo control or blinding, and inclusion of competitive athletes and those with preexisting psychopathology. To overcome these pitfalls, we used a double-blind, placebo-controlled design, excluded competitive athletes and those with psychiatric disorders, and used 600 mg testosterone enanthate (TE)/week. Forty-three eugonadal men, 19-40 yr, were randomized to 1 of 4 groups: Group I, placebo, no exercise; Group II, TE, no exercise; Group III, placebo, exercise; Group IV, TE plus exercise. Exercise consisted of thrice weekly strength training sessions. The Multi-Dimensional Anger Inventory (MAI), which includes 5 different dimensions of anger (inward anger, outward anger, anger arousal, hostile outlook, and anger eliciting situations), and a Mood Inventory (MI), which includes items related to mood and behavior, were administered to subjects before, during, and after the 10 week intervention. The subject's significant other (spouse, live-in partner, or parent) also answered the same questions about the subject's mood and behavior (Observer Mood Inventory, OMI). No differences were observed between exercising and nonexercising and between placebo and TE treated subjects for any of the 5 subdomains of MAI. Overall there were no significant changes in MI or OMI during the treatment period in any group. CONCLUSION: Supraphysiological doses of testosterone, when administered to normal men in a controlled setting, do not increase angry behavior. These data do not exclude the possibility that still higher doses of multiple steroids might provoke angry behavior in men with preexisting psychopathology.

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BACKGROUND: Athletes often take androgenic steroids in an attempt to increase their strength. The efficacy of these substances for this purpose is unsubstantiated, however. METHODS: We randomly assigned 43 normal men to one of four groups: placebo with no exercise; testosterone with no exercise; placebo plus exercise; and testosterone plus exercise. The men received injections of 600 mg of testosterone enanthate or placebo weekly for 10 weeks. The men in the exercise groups performed standardized weight-lifting exercises three times weekly. Before and after the treatment period, fat-free mass was determined by underwater weighing, muscle size was measured by magnetic resonance imaging, and the strength of the arms and legs was assessed by bench-press and squatting exercises, respectively. RESULTS: Among the men in the no-exercise groups, those given testosterone had greater increases than those given placebo in muscle size in their arms (mean [+/-SE] change in triceps area, 424 +/- 104 vs. -81 +/- 109 square millimeters; P < 0.05) and legs (change in quadriceps area, 607 +/- 123 vs. -131 +/- 111 square millimeters; P < 0.05) and greater increases in strength in the bench-press (9 +/- 4 vs. -1 +/- 1 kg, P < 0.05) and squatting exercises (16 +/- 4 vs. 3 +/- 1 kg, P < 0.05). The men assigned to testosterone and exercise had greater increases in fat-free mass (6.1 +/- 0.6 kg) and muscle size (triceps area, 501 +/- 104 square millimeters; quadriceps area, 1174 +/- 91 square millimeters) than those assigned to either no-exercise group, and greater increases in muscle strength (bench-press strength, 22 +/- 2 kg; squatting-exercise capacity, 38 +/- 4 kg) than either no-exercise group. Neither mood nor behavior was altered in any group. CONCLUSIONS: Supraphysiologic doses of testosterone, especially when combined with strength training, increase fat-free mass and muscle size and strength in normal men.

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In general there is a lack of information describing the components and structure of drug education and prevention programs (DEPP) for college student athletes. While concern about the prevalence of drug abuse among college student athletes has increased, a relative lack of clarity remains regarding what elements of drug education prevention programs have been successful or unsuccessful in this setting. In an effort to address this issue at Oregon State University a two-credit ten-week DEPP was implemented as a requirement for all collegiate athletes. This article describes the evaluation of this program. Altogether 635 student athletes from three National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division One universities provided data in this two-year evaluation project. Participants were student athletes from Oregon State University (OSU), a Mid-Western University (MWU), and another Pacific North-Western University (PNWU). Pre- and post-test data were collected regarding knowledge about drugs, attitudes toward drug use, drug use, and decision-making factors. Students at OSU and MWU were enrolled in a structured DEPP, and the third group from PNWU was used as a control and did not receive regular instruction. The baseline data taken before the drug education course indicated that athletes at OSU, MWU, and PNWU were no different in their knowledge of drugs, attitudes toward drugs, or perception of the value of drug education in preventing drug abuse among student athletes. However, the data at the end of the ten-week course revealed many significant improvements among OSU and MWU students athletes, in knowledge, attitude related to performance enhancing drugs and recreational drugs, and perceptions of drug education. At the end of the course 88 percent of the participating OSU athletes agreed that drug education can be effective in preventing drug abuse among student athletes.

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BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to determine past and future priorities of the health promotion industry. Parameters included target markets, program staff, ethical issues, corporate programs, and program sites. METHODS: This study focused on the predictive perceptions of 76 prominent health and fitness professionals. Participants completed an inventory designed to compare past and future practices in health promotion. The Wilcoxon rank-sign test was used to determine changes in perceived importance from past to future periods. RESULTS: The most important markets in the future were women and the elderly. Predictions regarding staffing included an expected increase in staff size in many program settings, a high importance rating for marketers and health educators, and standardized training and certification for health promotion personnel. Many employers in the future were predicted to link medical care costs and reimbursements with lifestyle behaviors, support confidentiality of health status information, and offer voluntary participation in health promotion programs to all employees. Employers were also predicted to provide more healthful work environments. DISCUSSION: Future success of these projected programs will depend upon administrative flexibility, creativity, and strategic planning.

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The alcoholism problem in the United States has reached proportions impossible to ignore. It follows that we need trained professionals in significant numbers to deal with the alcoholic population. Graduate programs, however, provide little or no course offerings in the area of specific training for dealing with alcoholics. In academia some attempts have been made to address this situation. However, budget restrictions, limited marketability of counselors with specialized training, and the superiority of the generalist training model are some of the main arguments that have compromised adequate chemical dependence training. The research literature, however, is replete with studies indicating the need for specialized training to prepare mental health professionals to work as competent alcohol counselors. The focus of this research was to examine the effect of specific training for counseling students in preparing them to work with alcoholic clients. The results of the analyses indicated that a training session specifically designed for working with alcoholic populations significantly increased the objective knowledge base of counseling students, although the single training session was not enough to significantly improve subjective judgment and response scores. This research emphasizes a need for specialized training in counseling programs for alcohol counselors. Further, it is implied that training programs should include at least one semester-long course on alcohol remediation for counseling students.

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The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of anabolic steroid use among competitive male and female bodybuilders in Kansas and Missouri. A profile was established for users and non-users of anabolic steroids. The results of this study indicated that more than half of the male bodybuilders (54%) were using steroids on a regular basis compared to 10 percent of the female competitors. The types of steroid used were investigated and revealed that on average, four different types of anabolic steroid were used during the year, with individual use ranging from one to fifteen different types; including Dianabol, Deca Durabolin, Anavar, Testosterone, Androl 50, Winstrol, Primobolan, Equipoise, Finaject, Parabolin, HCG, Primacetate, Enanthate, Halotestin, and Maxibolin, in order of the most to least frequently used. The female bodybuilders reported that they had used an average of two different steroids including Deca Durabolin, Anavar, Testosterone, Dianabol, Equipoise, and Winstrol. The principal reason bodybuilders used steroids was related to their perception that these drugs were an important factor in winning competitions. Another important motivating factor for use was consistent with reports that significant gains in strength could be achieved by including anabolic steroids as part of the training regimen in spite of the reported adverse side-effects.

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The study examined the differences between a sample of 311 international and 251 American university students relative to their self-perceived health status, health attitudes, behaviors, and locus of control using the International Student Health Inventory (ISHI). More specifically, the study compared demographics, current health history, health care obtained by students within the university milieu, health locus of control, wellness attitudes and behaviors. The study addressed the rationale for student health care professionals to improve health services for the international students. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Results indicated that sociocultural (external) and self-perceived (internal) stressors may influence both groups' health status and care. American students experienced more common minor stress-related illnesses/ailments than international students. Both groups indicated they functioned more from an internal health locus of control. Healthiest and poorest wellness attitudes were reported by the international male and American male students respectively. No observed differences were noticed on the groups' wellness behaviors.

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This study examined conditions in which two substance abuse prevention curricula were implemented in three Oregon school districts. Data related to teachers' involvement were collected from on-site interviews in 21 schools using a 43-item personal interview questionnaire with a stratified random sample of 44 teachers of drug education. Information provided by district program coordinators included details of inservice training, and financial costs to implement the Here's Looking at You, Two, (HLAY, II) and Starting Early curricula with 4,325 students. Teacher perceptions related to their responsibility for implementing the program, the quality of the curriculum, quality of the inservice, quality of the implementation procedures, and degree of teacher compliance for teaching the curricula. Results from teacher interviews and time and financial costs analysis could prove useful to school districts, building administrators, and teachers who plan to implement school-based drug education programs.

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