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CuCoFe-LDO/BCD was successfully synthesized from CuCoFe-LDH and biochar derived from durian shell (BCD). Ciprofloxacin (CFX) degraded more than 95% mainly by O2•- and 1O2 in CuCoFe-LDO/BCD(2/1)/PMS system within 10 min with a rate constant of 0.255 min-1, which was 14.35 and 2.66 times higher than those in BCD/PMS and CuCoFe-LDO/PMS systems, respectively. The catalytic system exhibited good performance over a wide pH range (3-9) and high degradation efficiency of other antibiotics. Built-in electric field (BIEF) driven by large difference in the work function/Fermi level ratio between CuCoFe-LDO and BCD accelerated continuous electron transfer from CuCoFe-LDO to BCD to result in two different microenvironments with opposite charges at the interface, which enhanced PMS adsorption and activation via different directions. As a non-radical, 1O2 was mainly generated via PMS activation by C=O in BCD. The presence of C=O in BCD resulted in an increase in atomic charge of C in C=O and redistributed the charge density of other C atoms. As a result, strong adsorption of PMS at C atom in C=O and other C with a high positive charge was favorable for 1O2 generation, whereas an enhanced adsorption of PMS at negatively charged C accounted for the generation of •OH and SO4•-. After adsorption, electrons in C of BCD became deficient and were fulfilled with those transferred from CuCoFe-LDO driven by BIEF, which ensured the high catalytic activity of CuCoFe-LDO/BCD. O2•-, on the other hand, was generated via several pathways that involved in the transformation of •OH and SO4•- originated from PMS activation by the transition of metal species in CuCoFe-LDO and negatively charged C in BCD. This study proposed a new idea of fabricating a low-cost metal-LDH and biomass-derived catalyst with a strong synergistic effect induced by BIEF for enhancing PMS activation and antibiotic degradation.

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In this study, CoCr layered double hydroxide material (CoCr-LDH) was prepared and used as an effective catalyst for peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation to degrade organics in water. The prepared CoCr-LDH material had a crystalline structure and relatively porous structure, as determined by various surface analyses. In Rhodamine B (RhB) removal, the most outstanding PMS activation ability belongs to the material with a Co:Cr molar ratio of 2:1. The removal of RhB follows pseudo-first-order kinetics (R2 > 0.99) with an activation energy of 38.23 kJ/mol and efficiency of 98% after 7 min of treatment, and the total organic carbon of the solution reduced 47.2% after 10 min. The activation and oxidation mechanisms were proposed and the RhB degradation pathways were suggested with the key contribution of O2•- and 1O2. Notably, CoCr-LDH can activate PMS over a wide pH range of 4 - 9, and apply to a wide range of organic pollutants and aqueous environments. The material has high stability and good recovery, which can be reused for 5 cycles with a stable efficiency of above 88%, suggesting a high potential for practical recalcitrant water treatment via PMS activation by heterogeneous catalysts.

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With both the quantitative and qualitative data from 628 responses to a set of questionnaire collected from the undergraduates of three educational institutions in central Vietnam, this study analyzed learners' needs of intercultural communication competence (ICC) related to their studying of English for tourism purposes and future occupations. The methodology used for data analysis including semi-structured interviews, and the questionnaire. The findings showed that the students preferred intercultural language learning activities referring to authentic materials and real-life experience. The results also revealed the participants' great needs of various ICC attitudes and regular tasks in tourism workplaces. Particularly, they had positive attitudes in intercultural communication, and higher needs of tasks for improving discourse and behavioural competences more than other ICC dimensions. The study has implications for tourism learners, educators and related stakeholders to raise their awareness in learning, teaching and developing this long-lasting competence.

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BACKGROUND: Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation with or without CD34+ selection is being used successfully to treat patients with severe and refractory autoimmune disease. This study describes our experience of CD34+ stem cell mobilization, harvesting and selection in autoimmune patients based on conditions in Vietnam - the developing country. METHODS: Eight autoimmune patients (four patients with Myasthenia Gravis and four patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus) underwent PBSC mobilization with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and cyclophosphamide. The apheresis was performed on a Terumo BCT Spectra Optia machine. CD34+ hematopoetic stem cells were collected from the leukapheresis by CliniMACS Plus device using CD34 Enrichment KIT. CD34+ cells, T and B lymphocytes were counted on a FACS BD Canto II device. RESULTS: Eight patients (4 MG and 4 SLE) including 5 females and 3 males were involved in this study. The mean age of the patients was 33.13 ± 16.64 years (ranging from 13 to 58 years). The average number of days for mobilization was 7.9 ± 1.6 days, whereas the average number of days for harvesting was 1.5 ± 0.5 days. There was no difference in the number of days for mobilization and harvesting between the MG and SLE groups. The number of CD34+ cells in peripheral blood (PB) on the day of harvesting was 108.37 ± 59.64 x 106 cells/L. There was a significant difference in white blood cell (WBC), neutrophil, monocyte, and platelet cell counts between before and after mobilization. On the day of stem cell harvesting, variables such as WBC, neutrophil, lymphocyte, monocyte, platelet, CD34+ cell counts, and hemoglobin were not different between the MG and SLE groups. The CD34+ recovery percentage following the CD34+ selection procedure was 68.8%, whereas almost 99.9% of the T and B lymphocytes, and NK cells in the PBSC products were eliminated. CONCLUSIONS: Very first attempts in mobilizing, harvesting, and selecting CD34+ stem cells were successful, paving the way for autoimmune patients to have autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in Vietnam.

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Vietnam has diverse and long-established tea plantations but scientific data on the characteristics of Vietnamese teas are still limited. Chemical and biological properties including total polyphenol and flavonoid contents (TPCs and TFCs), antioxidant activities (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and CUPRAC), as well as the contents of caffeine, gallic acid, and major catechins, were evaluated for 28 Vietnamese teas from North and South Vietnam. Higher values of TPCs and TFCs were found for green (non-oxidised) and raw Pu'erh (low-oxidised) teas from wild/ancient tea trees in North Vietnam and green teas from cultivated trees in South Vietnam, as compared to oolong teas (partly oxidised) from South Vietnam and black teas (fully oxidised) from North Vietnam. The caffeine, gallic acid, and major catechin contents depended on the processing, geographical origin, and the tea variety. Several good Pearson's correlations were found (r2 > 0.9) between TPCs, TFCs, the four antioxidant capacities, and the content of major catechins such as (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Results from principal component analysis showed good discriminations with cumulative variances of the first two principal components varying from 85.3% to 93.7% among non-/low-oxidised and partly/fully oxidised teas, and with respect to the tea origin.

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Leaf senescence, the last stage of leaf development, is essential for whole-plant fitness as it marks the relocation of nutrients from senescing leaves to reproductive or other developing organs. Temporally coordinated physiological and functional changes along leaf aging are fine-tuned by a highly regulated genetic program involving multi-layered regulatory mechanisms. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are newly emerging as hidden players in many biological processes; however, their contribution to leaf senescence has been largely unknown. Here, we performed comprehensive analyses of RNA-seq data representing all developmental stages of leaves to determine the genome-wide lncRNA landscape along leaf aging. A total of 771 lncRNAs, including 232 unannotated lncRNAs, were identified. Time-course analysis revealed 446 among 771 developmental age-related lncRNAs (AR-lncRNAs). Intriguingly, the expression of AR-lncRNAs was regulated more dynamically in senescing leaves than in growing leaves, revealing the relevant contribution of these lncRNAs to leaf senescence. Further analyses enabled us to infer the function of lncRNAs, based on their interacting miRNA or mRNA partners. We considered functionally diverse lncRNAs including antisense lncRNAs (which regulate overlapping protein-coding genes), competitive endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs; which regulate paired mRNAs using miRNAs as anchors), and mRNA-interacting lncRNAs (which affect the stability of mRNAs). Furthermore, we experimentally validated the senescence regulatory function of three novel AR-lncRNAs including one antisense lncRNA and two mRNA-interacting lncRNAs through molecular and phenotypic analyses. Our study provides a valuable resource of AR-lncRNAs and potential regulatory networks that link the function of coding mRNA and AR-lncRNAs. Together, our results reveal AR-lncRNAs as important elements in the leaf senescence process.

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Background/purpose: The characteristic of soft tissue changes in buccal shelf area during function is unclear. This study aimed for evaluating the potential denture covering area in buccal shelf area in different ranges of mouth opening by a digital approach. Materials and methods: Nineteen qualified dentate participants were enrolled. An intraoral scanner was used to record soft tissue in buccal shelf area in different ranges of mandibular opening, which were maximum intercuspation, 10 mm, 20 mm, and 30 mm of interincisal distance. The experiment was performed by two examiners. The common area of each range was generated within the clinically acceptable denture adaptation range, which was represented as the potential denture covering area. Data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistic, one-way repeated measure ANOVA, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and the Pearson correlation test. Results: Trends of the mean distance of the potential denture covering area increased from the frenum area to the second premolar and the first molar area then decreased in the second molar area, along with the ranges of mouth opening increased. The distance in the second molar area had drastic percentage changes during the mouth opening. The mean distances changed significantly when the mouth opening increased (P < 0.001). All ICC values of intra-, inter-rater reliability indicated good to excellent reliability. The correlation between the results from two examiners was strong (P < 0.001). Conclusion: The characteristic of the denture covering area posteriorly to the first molar area is inversely proportional in length to ranges of mouth opening.

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Lactococcus lactis strain Plasma (LC-Plasma) is reported to have anti-viral effects via direct activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells, which upregulate the production of type I and III interferons. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel group study was designed for elementary schoolchildren, grades 1 to 3, in Vietnam. LC-Plasma or a control were administered to schoolchildren as a beverage (1.0 × 1011 count LC-Plasma/day/person). The primary endpoint was to determine the efficacy of LC-Plasma in reducing the cumulative days absent from school due to upper respiratory disease (URID) and gastrointestinal disease (GID), and the secondary endpoint was to evaluate the potency of LC-Plasma on URID/GID symptoms and general well-being scores. LC-Plasma intake significantly reduced the cumulative days absent from school due to URID/GID (Odds ratio (OR) = 0.57, p = 0.004) and URID alone (OR = 0.56, p = 0.005); LC-Plasma also significantly reduced the number of cumulative fever positive days during the first 4 weeks of intervention (OR = 0.58, p = 0.001) and cumulative days with diarrhea during the last 4 weeks of the intervention period (OR = 0.78, p = 0.01). The number of positive general wellbeing days was significantly improved in the LC-Plasma group compared with the control throughout the intervention period (OR = 0.93, 0.93, p = 0.03, 0.04 in the first and last 4 weeks of the intervention, respectively). These data suggest that LC-Plasma seems to improve the health condition of elementary schoolchildren and reduces school absenteeism due to infectious disease, especially URID.

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Analytical methods with high sensitivity and accuracy were successfully validated for the quantification of 397 pesticides in different types of tea. For the UPLC-MS/MS method, 191 pesticides of 200 ones in total had "soft" matrix effects and could be quantified by calibration curves in the solvent. For the GC-MS/MS method, matrix-matched calibration curves were established on a mixed blank including white, green, oolong and black organic teas. The method limit of quantifications ranged from 1.0 µg kg-1 to 10 µg kg-1 (UPLC-MS/MS) and 1.0 µg kg-1 to 50 µg kg-1 (GC-MS/MS), with 70-120% of recovery. These methods was subsequently applied to 106 tea samples from several origins, in which 26 samples contained at least one pesticide violation, with a total of 43 pesticide residue violations. The most frequently detected pesticides were neonicotinoids, synthetic pyrethroids, and triazole fungicides. Taiwan had the most pesticide-contaminated samples followed by China, Vietnam, and India.

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Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) can reveal genetic variations associated with a phenotype in the absence of any hypothesis of candidate genes. The problem of false-positive sites linked with the responsible site might be bypassed in bacteria with a high homologous recombination rate, such as Helicobacter pylori, which causes gastric cancer. We conducted a small-sample GWAS (125 gastric cancer cases and 115 controls) followed by prediction of gastric cancer and control (duodenal ulcer) H. pylori strains. We identified 11 single nucleotide polymorphisms (eight amino acid changes) and three DNA motifs that, combined, allowed effective disease discrimination. They were often informative of the underlying molecular mechanisms, such as electric charge alteration at the ligand-binding pocket, alteration in subunit interaction, and mode-switching of DNA methylation. We also identified three novel virulence factors/oncoprotein candidates. These results provide both defined targets for further informatic and experimental analyses to gain insights into gastric cancer pathogenesis and a basis for identifying a set of biomarkers for distinguishing these H. pylori-related diseases.

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BACKGROUND: Ciprofloxacin (CIP), an important broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibiotic, was often used as a template molecule for the preparation of imprinted materials. In this study, methacrylic acid and 2-vinylpyridine were employed for the first time as dual functional monomers for synthesizing ciprofloxacin imprinted polymers. METHODS: The chemical and physicochemical properties of synthesized polymers were characterized using Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis-differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, and nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherm. The adsorption properties of ciprofloxacin onto synthesized polymers were determined by batch experiments. The extraction performances were studied using the solid phase extraction and HPLC-UV method. RESULTS: The molecularly imprinted polymer synthesized with dual functional monomers showed a higher adsorption capacity and selectivity toward the template molecule. The adsorbed amounts of ciprofloxacin onto the imprinted and non-imprinted polymer were 2.40 and 1.45 mg g-1, respectively. Furthermore, the imprinted polymers were employed as a selective adsorbent for the solid phase extraction of ciprofloxacin in aqueous solutions with the recovery of 105% and relative standard deviation of 7.9%. This work provides an alternative approach for designing a new adsorbent with high adsorption capacity and good extraction performance for highly polar template molecules.

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Although the type 4 secretion system of the integrating and conjugative elements (tfs ICE) is common in Helicobacter pylori, its clinical association with the cag pathogenicity island (cagPAI) have not yet been well-investigated. In this study, Vietnamese patient H. pylori samples (46 duodenal ulcer (DU), 51 non-cardia gastric cancer (NCGC), 39 chronic gastritis (CG)) were fully sequenced using next-generation sequencing and assembled into contigs. tfs3, tfs4, and cagPAI genes were compared with the public database. Most (94%) H. pylori strains possessed a complete cagPAI, which was the greatest risk factor for clinical outcomes, while the prevalences of tfs3 and tfs4 were 45% and 77%, respectively. Complete tfs3 and tfs4 were found in 18.3% and 17.6% of strains, respectively. The prevalence of H. pylori strains with complete tfs3 ICE in DU patients was significantly higher than that in NCGC patients (30.4% vs 11.7%, P < 0.05). In addition, the prevalence of strains with complete tfs3 ICE and cagPAI was significantly higher in DU patients than that in NCGC (28.4% vs 9.8%, P = 0.038) and CG patients (28.2% vs 7.7%, P = 0.024). cagPAI and complete tfs3 increased the risk of DU compared to NCGC (OR = 3.56, 95%CI: 1.1-14.1, P = 0.038) and CG (OR = 4.64, 95%CI: 1.1-27.6, P = 0.024). A complete cluster of tfs3 ICE was associated with gastroduodenal diseases in Vietnam. However, there was a low prevalence of the dupA/complete dupA cluster (15.4%) in the Vietnam strains. The prevalence of cagPAI in Vietnam strains was significantly higher than in US (P = 0.01) and Indonesia (P < 0.0001); the prevalence of the dupA cluster was also higher in the Vietnam strains than in the Indonesian strains (P < 0.05). In addition, the prevalence of ctkA, an accessory gene of tfs3, was significantly different between Vietnam and US strains (28% vs 2%, P = 0.0002). In summary, the acquisition of tfs3/4 ICE was common in H. pylori strains in patients with gastroduodenal disease in Vietnam, and the complete cluster of tfs3 ICE was a reliable marker for the severity of disease in the H. pylori infected population.

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OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the efficacy of fermented milk containing Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (LcS) on the incidence of constipation, diarrhea, acute respiratory infections (ARI), and nutritional status of young Vietnamese children. METHODS: A controlled field trial was conducted with 1003 children (3-5 years old) in Thanh Hoa province in Vietnam. The probiotic group (n = 510) consumed fermented milk 65 mL/day containing 108 CFU/mL of LcS for the 12-week intervention period, whereas the control group (n = 493) was not given any. The incidence of constipation, diarrhea, ARI, and anthropometry in children was determined at baseline, after 4, 8, and 12-week intervention, and after the 4-week follow-up period. RESULTS: Probiotic drink decreased the incidence of constipation after the 12-week intervention period (12.0% vs. 32.0%, OR = 0.28 (95% CI: 0.21-0.40), p < 0.001), tended to decrease the incidence of diarrhea (4.9% vs. 7.9%, OR = 0.60 (95% CI: 0.35-1.01), p = 0.068), and prevented the occurrence of ARI (15.9% vs. 24.5%, OR = 0.58 (95% CI: 0.42-0.79), p < 0.001), when compared with the control group. In contrast, no probiotic effects were observed for the duration of diarrhea or ARI. Weight gain was higher in the probiotic group than in the control group after 4, 8, and 12-week intervention and after the 4-week follow-up period (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Daily intake of fermented milk containing LcS strongly prevented the incidence of constipation and ARI in Vietnamese children. This study also revealed the potential effects of the use of a probiotic drink on diarrhea prevention as well as nutritional status improvement.

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This article describes an optical method based on the association of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) with chitosan (CS) film and its nanocomposites, including zinc oxide (ZnO) or graphene oxide (GO) for glyphosate detection. CS and CS/ZnO or CS/GO thin films were deposited on an Au chip using the spin coating technique. The characterization, morphology, and composition of these films were performed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and contact angle technique. Sensor preparation conditions including the cross-linking and mobile phase (pH and salinity) were investigated and thoroughly optimized. Results showed that the CS/ZnO thin-film composite provides the highest sensitivity for glyphosate sensing with a low detection limit of 8 nM and with high reproducibility. From the Langmuir-type adsorption model and the effect of ionic strength, the adsorption mechanisms of glyphosate could be controlled by electrostatic and steric interaction with possible formation of 1:1 outer-sphere surface complexes. The selectivity of the optical method was investigated with respect to the sorption of glyphosate metabolite (aminomethylphosphonic acid) (AMPA), glufosinate, and one of the glufonisate metabolites (3-methyl-phosphinico-propionic acid) (MPPA). Results showed that the SPR sensor offers a very good selectivity for glyphosate, but the competition of other molecules could still occur in aqueous systems.

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Lipoprotein(a) (Lp[a]) is the most common genetically inherited risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Many aspects of Lp(a) metabolism remain unknown. We assessed the uptake of fluorescent Lp(a) in primary human lymphocytes as well as Lp(a) hepatic capture in a mouse model in which endogenous hepatocytes have been ablated and replaced with human ones. Modulation of LDLR expression with the PCSK9 inhibitor alirocumab did not alter the cellular or the hepatic uptake of Lp(a), demonstrating that the LDL receptor is not a major route for Lp(a) plasma clearance. These results have clinical implications because they underpin why statins are not efficient at reducing Lp(a).

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Maximum residue limits (MRLs) for pesticides have been established in teas for quality control and protection of consumer health in many countries and regions, including Europe. It is, however, challenging to quantify multi-pesticide residues at low concentrations in complex matrices, such as tea. In this study, highly sensitive, efficient, and rugged analytical methods were adapted for simultaneous determination of 400 pesticide residues in green tea products using ultra performance liquid and gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectroscopy (UPLC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS). Matrix effects were minimized by combining QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) extraction and mixed-mode SPE clean-up with different sorbents in sample preparation. A C18 SPE cartridge paired with SPE GCB/PSA proved to be the most effective clean-up method and enabled 225 pesticide residues to be quantified, based on solvent calibration curves (154 residues using UPLC-MS/MS and 71 residues using GC-MS/MS). The analytical methods were validated fully in accordance with the SANTE/11945/2015. LOQs for most pesticides (386/400 or 96.5%) were below 10 µg/kg, i.e., less than the EU MRL (5-70 mg/kg). Thus, these approaches can be applied for routine analysis of multi-pesticide residues in green tea.

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BACKGROUND: Calreticulin (CALR) gene mutations are currently recommended as biomarkers in diagnosis of patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN) with Jak2 V617F negative phenotype. Our aim was to establish a rapid, low cost and sensitive assay for identification of CALR gene mutations and to validate the diagnostic performance of the established assay in a patient cohort with different clinical MPN phenotypes. METHODS: One hundred five Philadelphia-negative MPN patients, including polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocythaemia (ET), and primary myelofibrosis (PMF) were initially screened for JAK2 mutations by amplification-refractory mutation system (ARMS-PCR) methodology and were further subjected to detection of CALR gene mutations by our in-house assay, a PCR based amplicon length differentiation assay (PCR-ALDA). The PCR-ALDA methodology was compared with real time PCR and Sanger sequencing methods. Furthermore, the analytical sensitivity of the assay was established. RESULTS: PCR - ALDA approach was able to detect and discriminate the pseudo-positive samples containing more than 1% CALR mutant alleles. CALR mutations were not detected in 63 Jak2 V617F positive cases in all three methods. In contrast, amongst 42 Jak2 V617F negative cases, both PCR-ALDA and Sanger sequencing coherently identified 12 CALR mutants compared to 10 CALR mutants detected by real-time PCR method. CONCLUSION: PCR-ALDA can be utilized as an easy-to-use, rapid, low cost and sensitive tool in the detection of CALR mutations in Philadelphia-negative MPN patients.

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We evaluated the primary resistance of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) to routinely used antibiotics in Cambodia, an unexplored topic in the country, and assessed next-generation sequencing's (NGS) potential to discover genetic resistance determinants. Fifty-five H. pylori strains were successfully cultured and screened for antibiotic susceptibility using agar dilution. Genotypic analysis was performed using NGS data with a CLC genomic workbench. PlasmidSeeker was used to detect plasmids. The correlation between resistant genotypes and phenotypes was evaluated statistically. Resistances to metronidazole (MTZ), levofloxacin (LVX), clarithromycin (CLR), and amoxicillin (AMX) were 96.4%, 67.3%, 25.5%, and 9.1%, respectively. No resistance to tetracycline (TET) was observed. Multi-drug resistance affected 76.4% of strains. No plasmids were found, but genetic determinants of resistance to CLR, LVX, and AMX were 23S rRNA (A2146G and A2147G), GyrA (N87K and D91Y/N/G), and pbp1 (P473L), respectively. No determinants were genetically linked to MTZ or TET resistance. There was high concordance between resistant genotypes and phenotypes for AMX, LVX, and CLR. We observed high antibiotic resistance rates of CLR, MTZ, and LVX, emphasizing the need for periodic evaluation and alternative therapies in Cambodia. NGS showed high capability for detecting genetic resistance determinants and potential for implementation in local treatment policies.

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Antibiotic resistance is the most important factor leading to the failure of eradication regimens. This review focuses on the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori primary and secondary resistance to clarithromycin, metronidazole, amoxicillin, levofloxacin, tetracycline, and multidrug in Vietnam. We searched the PubMed, EMBASE, Vietnamese National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Vietnamese Biomedical databases from January 2000 to December 2016. The search terms included the following: H. pylori infection, antibiotic (including clarithromycin, metronidazole, amoxicillin, levofloxacin, tetracycline, and multidrug) resistance in Vietnam. The data were summarized in an extraction table and analyzed manually. Finally, Excel 2007 software was used to create charts. Ten studies (three studies in English and seven in Vietnamese) were included in this review. A total of 308, 412, 523, 408, 399, and 268 H. pylori strains were included in this review to evaluate the prevalence of H. pylori primary resistance to amoxicillin, clarithromycin, metronidazole, levofloxacin, tetracycline, and multidrug resistance, respectively. Overall, the primary resistance rates of amoxicillin, clarithromycin, metronidazole, levofloxacin, tetracycline, and multidrug resistance were 15.0%, 34.1%, 69.4%, 27.9%, 17.9% and 48.8%, respectively. Secondary resistance rates of amoxicillin, clarithromycin, metronidazole, levofloxacin, tetracycline, and multidrug resistance were 9.5%, 74.9%, 61.5%, 45.7%, 23.5% and 62.3%, respectively. In Vietnam, primary and secondary resistance to H. pylori is increasing over time and affects the effectiveness of H. pylori eradication.

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