RESUMEN
The bacterial pathogen Helicobacter pylori chronically infects the human gastric mucosa and is the leading risk factor for the development of gastric cancer. The molecular mechanisms of H. pylori-associated gastric carcinogenesis remain ill defined. In this study, we examined the possibility that H. pylori directly compromises the genomic integrity of its host cells. We provide evidence that the infection introduces DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in primary and transformed murine and human epithelial and mesenchymal cells. The induction of DSBs depends on the direct contact of live bacteria with mammalian cells. The infection-associated DNA damage is evident upon separation of nuclear DNA by pulse field gel electrophoresis and by high-magnification microscopy of metaphase chromosomes. Bacterial adhesion (e.g., via blood group antigen-binding adhesin) is required to induce DSBs; in contrast, the H. pylori virulence factors vacuolating cytotoxin A, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, and the cytotoxin-associated gene (Cag) pathogenicity island are dispensable for DSB induction. The DNA discontinuities trigger a damage-signaling and repair response involving the sequential ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-dependent recruitment of repair factors--p53-binding protein (53BP1) and mediator of DNA damage checkpoint protein 1 (MDC1)--and histone H2A variant X (H2AX) phosphorylation. Although most breaks are repaired efficiently upon termination of the infection, we observe that prolonged active infection leads to saturation of cellular repair capabilities. In summary, we conclude that DNA damage followed by potentially imprecise repair is consistent with the carcinogenic properties of H. pylori and with its mutagenic properties in vitro and in vivo and may contribute to the genetic instability and frequent chromosomal aberrations that are a hallmark of gastric cancer.
Asunto(s)
Adhesión Bacteriana , Roturas del ADN de Doble Cadena , Infecciones por Helicobacter/metabolismo , Helicobacter pylori/metabolismo , Neoplasias Gástricas/metabolismo , Proteínas Adaptadoras Transductoras de Señales , Animales , Antígenos Bacterianos/genética , Antígenos Bacterianos/metabolismo , Proteínas de la Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutada , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/genética , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Línea Celular Tumoral , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/genética , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/metabolismo , Aberraciones Cromosómicas , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Células Epiteliales/metabolismo , Células Epiteliales/microbiología , Células Epiteliales/patología , Islas Genómicas , Infecciones por Helicobacter/complicaciones , Infecciones por Helicobacter/patología , Histonas/genética , Histonas/metabolismo , Humanos , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/genética , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/metabolismo , Ratones , Proteínas Nucleares/genética , Proteínas Nucleares/metabolismo , Fosforilación , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/genética , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Neoplasias Gástricas/genética , Neoplasias Gástricas/microbiología , Neoplasias Gástricas/patología , Transactivadores/genética , Transactivadores/metabolismo , Proteínas Supresoras de Tumor/genética , Proteínas Supresoras de Tumor/metabolismo , Proteína 1 de Unión al Supresor Tumoral P53RESUMEN
B cells regulate autoimmune pathologies and chronic inflammatory conditions such as autoimmune encephalomyelitis and inflammatory bowel disease. The potential counterregulatory role of B cells in balancing pathogen-specific immune responses and the associated immunopathology is less well understood owing to the lack of appropriate persistent infection models. In this paper, we show that B cells have the ability to negatively regulate adaptive immune responses to bacterial pathogens. Using mouse models of infection with Helicobacter felis, a close relative of the human gastrointestinal pathogen H. pylori, we found that B cells activated by Helicobacter TLR-2 ligands induce IL-10-producing CD4(+)CD25(+) T regulatory-1 (Tr-1)-like cells in vitro and in vivo. Tr-1 conversion depends on TCR signaling and a direct T-/B-interaction through CD40/CD40L and CD80/CD28. B cell-induced Tr-1 cells acquire suppressive activity in vitro and suppress excessive gastric Helicobacter-associated immunopathology in vivo. Adoptive cotransfer of MyD88-proficient B cells and Tr-1 cells restores a normal gastric mucosal architecture in MyD88(-/-) and IL-10(-/-) mice in a manner that depends on T cellular, but not B cellular, IL-10 production. Our findings describe a novel mechanism of B cell-dependent Tr-1 cell generation and function in a clinically relevant disease model. In conclusion, we demonstrate that the B cell/Tr-1 cell axis is essential for balancing the control of Helicobacter infection with the prevention of excessive Th1-driven gastric immunopathology, promoting gastric mucosal homeostasis on the one hand and facilitating Helicobacter persistence on the other.
Asunto(s)
Subgrupos de Linfocitos B/inmunología , Diferenciación Celular/inmunología , Infecciones por Helicobacter/inmunología , Activación de Linfocitos/inmunología , Lesiones Precancerosas/inmunología , Neoplasias Gástricas/inmunología , Linfocitos T Reguladores/inmunología , Receptor Toll-Like 2/fisiología , Animales , Subgrupos de Linfocitos B/microbiología , Subgrupos de Linfocitos B/patología , Células Cultivadas , Infecciones por Helicobacter/patología , Infecciones por Helicobacter/prevención & control , Helicobacter felis/inmunología , Humanos , Ligandos , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Ratones Noqueados , Ratones Transgénicos , Factor 88 de Diferenciación Mieloide/fisiología , Lesiones Precancerosas/patología , Lesiones Precancerosas/prevención & control , Neoplasias Gástricas/patología , Neoplasias Gástricas/prevención & control , Linfocitos T Reguladores/microbiología , Linfocitos T Reguladores/patología , Receptor Toll-Like 2/deficiencia , Receptor Toll-Like 2/metabolismoRESUMEN
Gastric adenocarcinoma develops as a consequence of chronic inflammation of the stomach lining that is caused by persistent infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori. Gastric carcinogenesis progresses through a sequence of preneoplastic lesions that manifest histologically as atrophic gastritis, intestinal metaplasia, and dysplasia. We show here in several preclinical models of Helicobacter-induced atrophic gastritis, epithelial hyperplasia, and metaplasia that the inhibition of ADP ribosylation by the small-molecule inhibitor PJ34 not only prevents the formation of gastric cancer precursor lesions, but also efficiently reverses preexisting lesions. PJ34 exerts its chemopreventive and therapeutic effects by impairing Helicobacter-specific T-cell priming and T(H)1 polarization in the gut-draining mesenteric lymph nodes. The subsequent infiltration of pathogenic T cells into the gastric mucosa and the ensuing gastric T cell-driven immunopathology are prevented efficiently by PJ34. Our data indicate that PJ34 directly suppresses T-cell effector functions by blocking the IFN-gamma production of mesenteric lymph node T cells ex vivo. Upon exposure to PJ34, purified T cells failed to synthesize ADP-ribose polymers and to activate the transcription of genes encoding IFN-gamma, interleukin 2, and the interleukin 2 receptor alpha chain in response to stimuli such as CD3/CD28 cross-linking or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate/ionomycin. The immunosuppressive and chemoprotective effects of PJ34 therefore result from impaired T-cell activation and T(H)1 polarization, and lead to the protection from preneoplastic gastric immunopathology. In conclusion, ADP-ribosylating enzymes constitute novel targets for the treatment of Helicobacter-associated gastric lesions predisposing infected individuals to gastric cancer and may also hold promise for the treatment of other T cell-driven chronic inflammatory conditions and autoimmune pathologies.
Asunto(s)
Gastritis Atrófica/tratamiento farmacológico , Infecciones por Helicobacter/tratamiento farmacológico , Helicobacter pylori/crecimiento & desarrollo , Fenantrenos/farmacología , Lesiones Precancerosas/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias Gástricas/tratamiento farmacológico , Adenosina Difosfato/antagonistas & inhibidores , Adenosina Difosfato/inmunología , Adenosina Difosfato/metabolismo , Animales , Gastritis Atrófica/inmunología , Gastritis Atrófica/microbiología , Infecciones por Helicobacter/inmunología , Interferón gamma/antagonistas & inhibidores , Interferón gamma/biosíntesis , Interferón gamma/genética , Interleucina-2/antagonistas & inhibidores , Interleucina-2/biosíntesis , Interleucina-2/genética , Activación de Linfocitos , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Ratones Transgénicos , Inhibidores de Poli(ADP-Ribosa) Polimerasas , Lesiones Precancerosas/inmunología , Lesiones Precancerosas/microbiología , Neoplasias Gástricas/inmunología , Neoplasias Gástricas/microbiología , Linfocitos T/inmunología , Linfocitos T/metabolismoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND & AIMS: Persistent infection with the human pathogen Helicobacter pylori increases the risk of gastric cancer. In this study, we investigated the role of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and its main product, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), in the development of Helicobacter-induced gastritis and gastric cancer precursor lesions. METHODS: We utilized mouse models of Helicobacter-induced gastric preneoplasia and vaccine-induced protection to study the effects of COX-2 inhibition and PGE(2) treatment on the induction of Helicobacter-specific immune responses and gastric premalignant immunopathology. RESULTS: COX-2 and PGE(2) are up-regulated upon Helicobacter infection in cultured epithelial cells and in the gastric mucosa of infected mice. Inhibition of COX-2 activity with celecoxib significantly accelerated early preneoplasia; conversely, systemic administration of synthetic PGE(2) prevented development of premalignant pathology and completely reversed preexisting lesions by suppressing interferon-gamma production in the infected stomachs. The protective effect of PGE(2) was accompanied by increased Helicobacter colonization in all models. All in vivo effects were attributed to immunosuppressive effects of PGE(2) on CD4(+) T-helper 1 cells, which fail to migrate, proliferate, and secrete cytokines when exposed to PGE(2) in vitro and in vivo. T-cell inhibition was found to be due to silencing of interleukin-2 gene transcription, and could be overcome by supplementation with recombinant interleukin-2 in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: COX-2-dependent production of PGE(2) has an important immunomodulatory role during Helicobacter infection, preventing excessive local immune responses and the associated immunopathology by inhibiting the effector functions of pathogenic T-helper 1 cells.