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In this study we show how low temperature glow discharge plasma can be used to prepare bi-layered chromatography adsorbents with non-adsorptive exteriors. The commercial strong anion exchange expanded bed chromatography matrix, Q HyperZ, was treated with plasmas in one of two general ways. Using a purpose-designed rotating reactor, plasmas were employed to either: (i) remove anion exchange ligands at or close to the exterior surface of Q HyperZ, and replace them with polar oxygen containing functions ('plasma etching and oxidation'); or (ii) bury the same surface exposed ligands beneath thin polymer coatings ('plasma polymerization coating') using appropriate monomers (vinyl acetate, vinyl pyrrolidone, safrole) and argon as the carrier gas. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis (first ∼10 nm depth) of Q HyperZ before and after the various plasma treatments confirmed that substantial changes to the elemental composition of Q HyperZ's exterior had been inflicted in all cases. The atomic percent changes in carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, yttrium and zirconium observed after being exposed to air plasma etching were entirely consistent with: the removal of pendant Q (trimethylammonium) functions; increased exposure of the underlying yttrium-stabilised zirconia shell; and introduction of hydroxyl and carbonyl functions. Following plasma polymerization treatments (with all three monomers tested), the increased atomic percent levels of carbon and parallel drops in nitrogen, yttrium and zirconium provided clear evidence that thin polymer coats had been created at the exteriors of Q HyperZ adsorbent particles. No changes in adsorbent size and surface morphology, nor any evidence of plasma-induced damage could be discerned from scanning electron micrographs, light micrographs and measurements of particle size distributions following 3 h exposure to air (220 V; 35.8 W L(-1)) or 'vinyl acetate/argon' (170 V; 16.5 W L(-1)) plasmas. Losses in bulk chloride exchange capacity before and after exposure to plasmas enabled effective modification depths within hydrated Q HyperZ adsorbent particles to be calculated as 0.2-1.2 µm, depending on the conditions applied. The depth of plasma induced alteration was strongly influenced by the power input and size of the treated batch, i.e. dropping the power or increasing the batch size resulted in reduced plasma penetration and therefore shallower modification. The selectivity of 'surface vs. core' modification imparted to Q HyperZ by the various plasma treatments was evaluated in static and dynamic binding studies employing appropriate probes, i.e. plasmid DNA, sonicated calf thymus DNA and bovine serum albumin. In static binding studies performed with adsorbents that had been exposed to plasmas at the 5 g scale (25 g L(-1) of plasma reactor), the highest 'surface/core' modification selectivity was observed for Q HyperZ that had been subjected to 3 h of air plasma etching at 220 V (35.8 W L(-1)). This treatment removed ∼53% of 'surface' DNA binding at the expense of a 9.3% loss in 'core' protein binding. Even more impressive results were obtained in dynamic expanded bed adsorption studies conducted with Q HyperZ adsorbents that had been treated with air (220 V, 3 h) and 'vinyl acetate/argon' (170 V, 3 h) plasmas at 10.5 g scale (52.5 g L(-1) of plasma reactor). Following both plasma treatments: the 10% breakthrough capacities of the modified Q HyperZ adsorbents towards 'surface' binding DNA probes dropped very significantly (30-85%); the DNA induced inter-particle cross-linking and contraction of expanded beds observed during application of sonicated DNA on native Q HyperZ was completely eradicated; but the 'core' protein binding performance remained unchanged cf. that of the native Q HyperZ starting material.

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The hydrodynamic properties of an expanded bed contactor with 30 cm or 150 cm internal diameter, which employs a rotating or oscillating fluid distributor, were compared to prototype columns of 60 cm or 150 cm diameter employing local stirring (fixed wall nozzles plus central bottom mounted stirrer) for fluid distribution. Fluid introduction through a rotating fluid distributor was found to give superior hydrodynamic characteristics in the 30 cm and 150 cm diameter column compared to using the local stirrer in both the 60 cm and 150 cm diameter columns. The shortcomings of the local stirring distributor at large scale were apparent: dead zones were present which could not be removed by increasing rotation rates or flow rates, and such changes led to a deterioration in hydrodynamic properties. In contrast, during fluid introduction through a rotating distributor no dead zones were observed, and residence time distribution tests showed that plate numbers remained constant or increased slightly as flow rate was raised from 200 cm h(-1) to 470 cm h(-1). Under the conditions studied, oscillation of the rotating fluid distributor led to increased mixing and poorer performance than rotary movement. The results imply that further improvement in distributor design is needed and careful attention should be given to the trade off between turbulence and adequate fluid distribution.

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We present fast, simple immunoturbidimetric assays suitable for direct determination of antibody 'concentration' and 'functionality' in crude samples, such as in-process samples taken at various stages during antibody purification. Both assays display excellent linearity and analytical recovery. Possible influences from commonly employed buffers and salts (present in samples at various concentrations), and of pH variations, were studied for both assays. Interference effects were shown to be negligible for the 'concentration' assay, such that sample pre-treatment prior to assay is unnecessary. The 'functionality' assay displayed concentration dependent sensitivity to interference for ammonium sulphate and Tris-(hydroxymethyl)-amino-methane, but was essentially unaffected by all other salts and buffer combinations tested. The immunoturbidimetric assays described here are generically applicable to polyclonal antibodies, require only basic laboratory equipment, are robust, fast, cheap, easy to perform, and readily adapted to automation.

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We have carried out a rigorous evaluation of eight commercially available packed bed chromatography adsorbents for direct capture and purification of immunoglobulins from clarified rabbit antiserum. Three of these materials featured rProtein A (rProtein A Sepharose Fast Flow, Mabselect, Prosep rProtein A) as the affinity ligand, and differed from one another primarily with respect to the underlying base matrix. The remaining five matrices comprised various synthetic low molecular weight ligands immobilised on hydrophilic porous supports and these included: MEP HyperCel, MabSorbent A1P, MabSorbent A2P, FastMabsA and Kaptiv-GY. The general experimental approach taken was to sequentially challenge packed beds of each matrix with a series of different strengths of a clarified antiserum; beginning with the weakest and ending with the strongest. Marked differences in performance (principally evaluated on the basis of dynamic binding capacity, recovery, and purity) were obtained, which allowed clear recommendations concerning the choice of adsorbents best suited for antibody capture from rabbit antisera, to be made.

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In this study we detail the rational design of new chromatographic adsorbents tailored for the capture of plasmid DNA. Features present on current chromatographic supports that can significantly enhance plasmid binding capacity have been identified in packed bed chromatography experiments and blueprints for improved expanded bed adsorbents have been put forward. The characterisation and testing of small (20-40 microm) high density (>3.7 g cm(-3)) pellicular expanded bed materials functionalised with various anion exchange structures is presented. In studies with calf thymus DNA, dynamic binding capacities of 1.2 and 3.4 mg ml(-1) were recorded for prototype diethylaminoethyl-and polyethylene imine-linked adsorbents which were respectively 25 and 70 fold higher than those of equivalently derivatised commercial expanded bed materials. The prototype polyethylene imine-coupled material exhibited severe sensitivity to inter-particle bridging by nucleic acid polymers, gave low DNA recoveries (<37%) and proved difficult to regenerate. In contrast, few operational difficulties were experienced with the diethylaminoethyl-linked prototype adsorbent and successful high capacity (>0.8 mg ml(-1)) capture of plasmid DNA from crude neutralised E. coli lysate was demonstrated.

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A robust new adsorptive separation technique specifically designed for direct product capture from crude bioprocess feedstreams is introduced and compared with the current bench mark technique, expanded bed adsorption. The method employs product adsorption onto sub-micron sized non-porous superparamagnetic supports followed by rapid separation of the 'loaded' adsorbents from the feedstock using high gradient magnetic separation technology. For the recovery of Savinase from a cell-free Bacillus clausii fermentation liquor using bacitracin-linked adsorbents, the integrated magnetic separation system exhibited substantially enhanced productivity over expanded bed adsorption when operated at processing velocities greater than 48 m h(-1). Use of the bacitracin-linked magnetic supports for a single cycle of batch adsorption and subsequent capture by high gradient magnetic separation at a processing rate of 12 m h(-1) resulted in a 2.2-fold higher productivity relative to expanded bed adsorption, while an increase in adsorbent collection rate to 72 m h(-1) raised the productivity to 10.7 times that of expanded bed adsorption. When the number of batch adsorption cycles was then increased to three, significant drops in both magnetic adsorbent consumption (3.6 fold) and filter volume required (1.3 fold) could be achieved at the expense of a reduction in productivity from 10.7 to 4.4 times that of expanded bed adsorption.

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The purification of an intracellular product from a complex mixture of contaminants after cell disruption is a common problem in processes downstream of fermentation systems. This is particularly challenging for the recovery of particulate (80 nm in diameter) multimeric protein products, named virus-like particles (VLPs), from cell debris and other intracellular components. Selective flocculation for debris removal followed by selective precipitation of the target protein can be used as a preclarification step to aid purification. In this paper, selective borax flocculation of cell debris in yeast homogenate, followed by selective poly(ethylene glycol) precipitation of VLPs are defined with a view to demonstrating their potential in aiding the initial clarification stages of the purification sequence. The translation from laboratory scale to pilot scale operation is addressed, demonstrating the challenge of scale-up of solid-liquid separation stages for biological particle processing.

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The use of high capacity micron-sized non-porous magnetic metal chelator adsorbents for the direct recovery of a recombinant metal-binding protein from crude liquors is described. Selectivity and interaction strength of magnetic chelator particles were assessed using a set of native proteins with known behaviour towards commercially available immobilised metal chelate adsorbents. Particles charged with Cu2+ were highly effective in recovering a recombinant histidine-tailed T4 lysozyme fusion protein directly from crude E. coli extracts in a single step. Levels of recovery and purity were high and compared favourably with those achieved by chromatography of pre-clarified extracts on Cu(2+)-IDA Sepharose. The magnetic approach offers advantages such as the avoidance of clarification to prevent fouling of chromatography columns, steps that become especially significant at large scale. By detailed characterisation of the magnetic chelators the practical use of tailed T4 lysozyme for repeated production of periplasmic products is a realistic prospect.

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The preparation, characterisation and testing of stable non-porous coated perfluorocarbon supports functionalised with the metal chelate, iminodiacetic acid (IDA) is described. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), a neutral hydrophilic polymer was esterified with perfluorooctanoyl chloride and anchored to the surface of solid perfluorocarbon particles through multiple fluorophilic interactions. The PVA-coated particles were then activated by epoxidation and coupled with IDA. The presence of surface-attached chelates was clearly demonstrated by the binding and selective desorption of Zn2+ ions. Three particulate perfluorocarbons were selected as potential starting materials and the conditions for preparation of metal chelating adsorbents optimised with respect to ease of manufacture, ligand density and binding capacity towards a monoclonal antibody known to bind to commercial Zn(2+)-IDA supports. The choice of base particle strongly influenced the ligand densities and specific binding capacities towards the monoclonal antibody that could be achieved under optimal preparative conditions. Possible ways in which these metal chelating adsorbents may be employed to recover the monoclonal antibody directly from culture vessels are discussed.

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Periplasmic expression of recombinant proteins presents many potential benefits that may aid recovery of the protein product. Muramidases are the preferred agents in effecting selective release of recombinant proteins from the periplasm of E. coli and other Gram negative bacteria. Unfortunately cost restricts the use of pure lytic enzymes at large-scale and their removal as process contaminants adds to later purification demands. We constructed a reusable version of bacteriophage T4 lysozyme, by fusing a His-Gln-(His)3 peptide sequence to the C-terminus of a cysteine-free pseudo wild type bacteriophage T4 lysozyme. The peptide tail allowed rapid and high-level recovery on IDA Sepharose columns charged with Zn2+, Ni2+ and Cu2+ ions. The binding to metal-charged supports was specifically mediated by the histidine-rich tail as no binding was observed for the original cysteine-free pseudo wild type lysozyme. The strength of retention of polyhistidine recombinant T4 lysozyme on charged supports followed the expected Cu > Ni > Zn pattern, but there were few differences in the levels of purity and recovery of the modified enzyme, from columns charged with the different metal ions.

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A simple and rapid spectrophotometric method for measuring recombinant inclusion body concentrations in the presence of Escherichia coli cell debris has been applied to monitoring the performance of an industrial disc stack centrifuge. Turbidimetric measurements were made at two wavelengths, i.e., 600 nm and 420 nm, and the ratios of OD(600nm)/OD(420nm) related to the particle composition in suspension. The principle behind the technique is that inclusion body particles scatter light at 600 nm more effectively than do smaller cell debris particles when compared with the degree of light scatter at 420 nm. This technique may have broad potential application in developing an automatic monitoring and control system for industrial-scale inclusion body recovery. (c) 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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The surfactant-degrading bacterium Pseudomonas C12B was immobilized in polyacrylamide gel beads. Conditions were established for minimizing the apparent loss of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-degrading activity accompanying polymerization, while still retaining durable gel beads. Apparent losses in SDS-degrading activity compared with free untreated bacteria were attributed largely to substrate diffusion limitations imposed by the gel matrix. Changes in the rate and extent of conversion of radiolabel from [1-14C]SDS to 14CO2 were attributed to diffusional restrictions on O2 availability within the gel beads. Scanning electron microscopy was used to show that beads (3 mm3) repeatedly exposed to SDS for 35 days contained a high cell density in a sub-surface layer 0.4-0.7 mm deep, with relatively few bacteria either at greater depth or at the bead surface.

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Metabolism of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) by the detergent-degrading bacterium Pseudomonas C12B has been studied using a 14C radiotracer in combination with radio-respirometry, radio-TLC, and GLC. Metabolism was extensive with 70% of the radiolabel released as 14CO2 at completion. The remainder of the radiolabel was incorporated almost totally into cells. Ether extraction of cells indicated that 14C-labeled cellular material appearing early in the uptake process was predominantly ether-extractable (mainly 1-dodecanol) and was subsequently converted to more polar metabolites. Analysis of the extractable lipids established the sequential production from [1-14C]SDS of 1-dodecanol, dodecanal, and dodecanoic acid. At this point the pathway diverged leading either to formation of 14CO2 via beta-oxidation or to elongation to C14, C16, and C18 fatty acyl residues with rapid incorporation into lipid fractions such as phospholipids. The pathway was correlated with known long-chain alkylsulfatases and alcohol dehydrogenases in this isolate and indicated that hydrophobic metabolites of the alkyl chain of surfactants can be incorporated into cellular components such as membrane lipids without prior degradation by beta-oxidation.

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