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The scent system of Danaus is important for the study of butterfly sexual communication and relevant investigations in biomimetics due to its involvement with mimicry. Using light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy, the morphological characteristics of Danaus' antennae and scent patches of the scent system for three species, D. chrysippus, D. genutia, and D. plexippus, were investigated herein. Their apical clubs of the flagellums contain sensilla trichodea, sensilla chaetica, and sensilla coeloconica. The scent patch scales typically have a tree-like structure in its lumen at the nano-scale. Comparisons were made between the androconial scales and the other scales in scent patches. Rank sum tests showed significant differences in scent patch scales' characteristics between the species, as well as in the ultrastructure of antennal segments between species and sexes. Spearman's correlation tests showed significant correlations between the morphological characteristics of androconial scales in scent patches. Moreover, the antennal characteristics were significantly correlated. The morphological characteristics of the females' antennae were significantly correlated with those of the males' antennae and androconial scales. However, the significance and coefficient of these correlations were inconsistent across species and sexes. This study provides fundamental morphological information that helps in understanding the pheromone recognition system of Danaus.

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Six species of Diostracus from Tibet are described as new to science: D.concavussp. nov., D.fasciculatussp. nov., D.laetussp. nov., D.polytrichussp. nov., D.strenussp. nov., and D.translucidussp. nov. A key to the species from Tibet of the genus is provided. The distribution of the genus in Tibet is also discussed.

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The radiative cooling of butterfly wing scales hierarchy has great value in understanding how poikilotherms adapt to the environment and developing bionic materials. However, it remains unclear what the cooling system is like and how the variation of hierarchy affects the cooling efficiency. Therefore, the correlation between the variations of the structure and emissivity of scale hierarchy is thoroughly investigated in Tirumala limniace (Cramer, 1775), whose thermal properties are highly heterogeneous among different wings and regions but similar between males and females. Patterns were deduced from the biological and model simulation experiments. The scale hierarchy varies at the micro- to nanolevel on both surface and section, corresponding to the variating emissivity. Scales on wing veins and margins have large nanostructured units with small lumens and are distinctly thickened, which bring extraordinarily high emissivity. The variations of light and dark scales, respectively, lead to the high emissivity of the middle region of wings and the front wings. Generally, the elevation of the inner surface area and the thickness of the chitin is the key to enhancing the cooling efficiency. For the first time, the effects of the variation of hierarchy toward emissivity of the mid-infrared spectrum are systematically clarified. It is demonstrated that wing scales integrally differentiate in coping with the heterogeneous cooling needs, which may benefit in balancing multifunctions and the development toward the adaptation to the abiotic environment. The study provides insights into the comprehensive thermoregulation system of butterflies and the further development of radiative cooling materials.

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BACKGROUND: Metamorphosis remains one of the most complicated and poorly understood processes in insects. This is particularly so for the very dynamic transformations that take place within the pupal sheath of holometabolous insects. Only few studies address these transformations especially with regard to cranial structures of those holometabolous species where the larval and adult forms have a similar diet. It thus remains unclear to what extent the internal structures undergo histolysis and rebuilding. Here, the development of the brain and skeleto-muscular system of the head of Chrysopa pallens (Rambur, 1838) is studied. This species is a predator of aphids in the larval and adult stage. RESULTS: We used micro-computed-tomography (µ-CT) to study the transformations of the larval, prepupal and pupal head within the cocoon. We first assessed the morphological differences and similarities between the stages. We then determined the point in time when the compound eyes appear and describe the re-orientation of the head capsule which transforms the prognathous larva into a hypognathous adult. The internal head muscles are distinctly more slender in larvae than adults. In addition, the adults have a significantly larger brain which is likely needed for the processing of the signals obtained by the adults vastly expanded sensory organs that are presumably needed for dispersal and mating. Our study shows that the histolysis and modification of the inner muscles and skeletal elements take place within the prepupa. The central nervous system persists throughout metamorphosis but its morphology changes significantly. CONCLUSION: Our study reveals that not only the inner structures, but also the outer morphology continues to change after the final larval moult. The adult cuticle and internal structures form gradually within the cocoon. The histolysis and rebuilding begin with the skeletal elements and is followed by changes in the central nervous system before it concludes with modifications of the musculature. This order of events is likely ancestral for Holometabola because it is also known from Hymenoptera, Diptera, Mecoptera, and Coleoptera.

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The Himalayan region now includes 67 species in seven genera of Sciapodinae, including nine new species (Amblypsilopus acuminatus sp. nov., A. liangi sp. nov., A. liratus sp. nov., A. marginatus sp. nov., A. medogensis sp. nov., A. quinquepetalus sp. nov., Plagiozopelma fornicata sp. nov., P. trilobata sp. nov., Sciapus zewoiensus sp. nov.). Six species are reported from the Himalayan region for the first time: A. baoshanus Yang, A. didymus Yang, A. hubeiensis Yang Yang, A. imitans (Becker), A. liui Zhu Yang, and P. medivittatum Bickel Wei. Chrysosoma insensibile Yang is re-assessed and transferred to Amblypsilopus, new combination. Amblypsilopus sinensis Yang Yang, 2003 is proposed as a new synonym of A. subabruptus Bickel Wei, 1996. This is the first time Sciapus Zeller is reported from the Himalayan region. Keys to genera and species of Sciapodinae occurring in the Himalayas are provided. The distribution of Sciapodinae in the Himalayas is discussed.

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In the present paper the Oriental species of the genus Lichtwardtia Enderlein, 1912 are revised based on the type material of known species and new material from Singapore and Cambodia. A re-description and illustration of the holotype female of Lichtwardtiaziczac (Wiedemann, 1824) is given but since it has been described on the basis of a female only and its provenance India Orientalis is only a vague indication of its type locality, it is considered as a nomen dubium. All the species put as junior synonyms by Becker (1922) of L.ziczac are re-established to their original status with diagnosis: Lichtwardtiapolychroma (Loew, 1864) and Lichtwardtiaformosana Enderlein, 1912. However, L.coxalis is now also considered as a nomen dubium since the original description is too short to distinguish it from other species and the holotype female is lost. In addition a re-description and illustrations of L.hirsutiseta (de Meijere, 1916) are provided. Eight new species for science are described and illustrated: Lichtwardtiacambodiensis Tang & Grootaert, sp. n. (Cambodia), Lichtwardtiaconspicabilis Tang & Grootaert, sp. n. (Cambodia), Lichtwardtiainfuscata Tang & Grootaert, sp. n. (Cambodia), Lichtwardtiamonstruosa Tang & Grootaert, sp. n. (Cambodia), Lichtwardtianodulata Grootaert & Tang, sp. n. (Singapore), Lichtwardtiasemakau Grootaert & Tang, sp. n. (Singapore) and Lichtwardtiasingaporensis Grootaert & Tang, sp. n. (Singapore). Lichtwardtiazhangae Tang & Grootaert, sp. n. (Bali, Indonesia) is a new name for the species described by Zhang, Masunaga & Yang, 2009, as Lichtwardtiaziczac (Wiedemann, 1824). There are only a few good diagnostic non-genitalic characters for the species, but the male terminalia are distinctive, from simple to very complicated and armed structures. A key is given to the species of the Oriental region. Barcodes are provided for the Singaporean species. Although Lichtwardtia is a common genus in Southeast Asia it is generally not abundant locally. It is often found in anthropogenic disturbed habitats only. Four species are recorded from Singapore while eight species are sympatric and very abundant at the locality of Siem Reap in Cambodia.

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Mosquitoes are of great medical significance as vectors of deadly diseases. Despite this, little is known about their evolutionary history or how their present day diversity has been shaped. Within a phylogenetic framework, here we show a strong correlation between climate change and mosquito speciation rates: the first time to our knowledge such an effect has been demonstrated for insects. Information theory reveals that although climate change is correlated with mosquito evolution there are other important factors at play. We identify one such driver to be the rise of mammals, which are predominant hosts of Culicidae. Regardless of the precise mechanism, we demonstrate a strong historical association. This finding, taken in combination with projected rises in atmospheric CO2 from anthropogenic activity, has important implications for culicid vector distributions and abundance, and consequently for human health.

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Protomedeteragen. n. (Diptera: Dolichopodidae), a new genus of the subfamily Medeterinae, is described from the Oriental and Australasian realms based on four new species. Protomedetera singaporensis Grootaert & Tang, sp. n. is designated as type of the new genus. The genus is peculiar because of the small body size, the small globular first flagellomere (postpedicel), the simple male genitalia with indistinct or small epandrial lobe and half-hidden cercus. The following four new species are described and illustrated: P. biconvexasp. n., P. bisetasp. n., P. glabrasp. n., and P. singaporensissp. n. A key to the species of the new genus is provided.

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The long-legged fly Diostracus lamellatus Wei et Liu belongs to the subfamily Hydrophorinae of Dolichopodidae. The mitogenome of D. lamellatus was sequenced, the first representative of the mitogenome of the subfamily. The mitogenome is 14,143 bp totally, consisting of 13 protein-coding genes, two rRNAs, and 22 transfer RNAs. All genes have the similar locations and strands with that of other published species of Dolichopodidae. The nucleotide composition biases towards A and T, which together made up 75.8% of the entirety. Bayesian inference analysis strongly supported the monophyly of Dolichopodidae. It suggested that the Hydrophorinae is the sister group to the clade of Sciapodinae + Dolichopodinae.

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Tipulomorpha has long been a problematic taxon in terms of familial composition, phylogenetic relationships among families and position relative to other 'lower' Diptera. Whole-transcriptome shotgun sequencing provides a powerful basis for phylogenetic studies. We performed de novo transcriptome sequencing to produce the first transcriptome datasets representing the families Pediciidae, Limoniidae and Cylindrotomidae using high-throughput sequencing technologies. We assembled cDNA libraries for Pedicia vetusta (Alexander) (Pediciidae), Rhipidia sejuga Zhang, Li and Yang (Limoniidae) and Liogma simplicicornis Alexander (Cylindrotomidae). Using the Illumina RNA-Seq method, we obtained 28,252, 44,152 and 44,281 unigenes, from the three respective species. Based on sequence similarity searches, 12,475 (44.16%), 20,334 (46.05%) and 17,478 (39.47%) genes were identified. Analysis of genes highly conserved at the amino acid sequence level revealed there were 1,709 single-copy orthologs genes across the analyzed species. Phylogenetic trees constructed using maximum likelihood (ML) based on the 1,709 single-copy orthologs genes indicated that the relationship between the four major infraorders of lower Diptera was: Culicomorpha + (Tipulomorpha + (Psychodomorpha + (Bibionomorpha + Brachycera))). Trichoceridae belongs within Tipulomorpha as the sister-group of Tipuloidea. Highly supported relationships within the Tipuloidea are Pediciidae + (Limoniidae + (Cylindrotomidae + Tipulidae)). Four-cluster likelihood mapping was used to study potential incongruent signals supporting other topologies, however, results were congruent with the ML tree.

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The complete mitochondrial genome of Eristalis tenax (Linnaeus, 1758) (Diptera, Syrphidae) is reported here. This is the first sequenced mitogenome from the subfamily Milesiinae. The whole mitochondrial genome is 16,091 bp in length and contains 37 canonical genes, which include 22 transfer RNA genes, 13 protein-coding genes and two ribosomal RNA genes, the control region is 1125 bp in length. Most PCGs start with standard ATN codons, while CO1 and ND1 use TTG, CO3 uses TGG as start codons. All PCGs terminate in the common stop codons TAA. In addition, the nucleotide composition of the coding region was 40.0% of A, 40.1% of T, 11.2% of C, 8.7% of G and 80.1% of A + T content. The phylogenetic tree shows that Syrphidae is the sister group of Pipunculidae.

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There are 26 species of Rhaphium recorded from China, including the following six species described as new to science: Rhaphium apophysatum sp. nov., R. bilobum sp. nov., R. bisectum sp. nov., R. daqinggouense sp. nov., R. dorsiseta sp. nov., R. neimengense sp. nov. Two new groups: the R. flavilabre and R. bilobum species groups are proposed. A key to the species of Rhaphium from China is provided.

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Only three species of Medetera Fischer von Waldheim were known from Inner Mongolia. Here the following ten new species of Medetera, of which three species belong to Medetera apicalis group and seven belong to Medetera diadema-veles group, are added to the fauna of Inner Mongolia: Medetera albens sp. n., Medetera bisetifera sp. n., Medetera flava sp. n., Medetera ganshuiensis sp. n., Medetera lihuae sp. n., and Medetera transformata sp. n., Medetera triseta sp. n., Medetera shiae sp. n., Medetera shuimogouensis sp. n., and Medetera xiquegouensis sp. n. A key to the species of Medetera from Palaearctic China is provided.

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Three species of Thinophilus Wahlberg are recorded from mangroves near Shenzhen (China). Two species new to science are described and illustrated: T. dongae sp. nov. and T. zhuae sp. nov. In addition, Thinophilus lamellaris Zhu, Yang & Masunaga originally described from Hainan (China) is reported here. Females of this species are described for the first time and variability in male characters is given. These three species plus 6 additional Thinophilus and three Nanothinophilus species from South China Sea mangroves were COI barcoded and compared to species known from the northern part of the South China Sea.

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Only one species of Medetera Fischer von Waldheim was known to occur previously in Tibet. Here the following three species of Medetera are described as new to science: Medetera exornata sp. nov., Medetera furva sp. nov. and Medetera sinuosa sp. nov. The first two species belong to the apicalis group, and the last one belongs to the diadema-veles group. A key to the species of Medetera from the Himalayas is provided.

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Previously only ten species of Hercostomus Loew were known to occur in Tibet, of which only two belong to the H. baishanzuensis group. Here the following six species of the H. baishanzuensis group are described as new to science: Hercostomus bisetus sp. nov., H. deltodontus sp. nov., H. flavus sp. nov., H. galonglaensis sp. nov., H. nuciformis sp. nov. and H. pailongensis sp. nov. A key to the species of the H. baishanzuensis group from Tibet is provided.

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