RESUMEN
Stem cell transplantation can be associated with significant periods of thrombocytopenia, necessitating platelet transfusions and contributing to the risk of bleeding. Thrombopoietin receptor agonists have been shown to enhance platelet counts in other clinical settings, and so a phase 1 clinical trial was conducted to assess the safety, pharmacokinetics, and maximum tolerated dose of once-daily eltrombopag in patients undergoing stem cell transplantation with conditioning regimens containing total body irradiation ≥400 cGy. Eltrombopag was examined at dosage levels of 75, 150, 225, and 300 mg given orally once daily for 27 days, starting at 24 to 48 hours post-transplantation. Pharmacokinetic sampling was performed over a 24-hour period after the first dose of eltrombopag, as well as during the second week of treatment (steady-state). Nineteen patients were enrolled, 15 of whom completed protocol treatments. Three patients completed each dose level up to 225 mg, and 6 completed treatment at the highest dose of 300 mg. Four patients were replaced because drug compliance was <75% of planned doses. No dose-limiting toxicities were observed in this heterogeneous post-transplantation patient population. Common adverse events were related to standard stem cell transplantation. One episode of pulmonary embolus occurred 9 days after discontinuation of eltrombopag, and the only other thromboembolic episode was a grade 2 catheter-related clot. We conclude that up to 27 days of once-daily dosing of eltrombopag after stem cell transplantation is well tolerated.
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Benzoatos/efectos adversos , Benzoatos/uso terapéutico , Hidrazinas/efectos adversos , Hidrazinas/uso terapéutico , Pirazoles/efectos adversos , Pirazoles/uso terapéutico , Trasplante de Células Madre/métodos , Acondicionamiento Pretrasplante/métodos , Irradiación Corporal Total/métodos , Adulto , Anciano , Benzoatos/farmacocinética , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Femenino , Neoplasias Hematológicas/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias Hematológicas/radioterapia , Neoplasias Hematológicas/cirugía , Neoplasias Hematológicas/terapia , Humanos , Hidrazinas/farmacocinética , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Pirazoles/farmacocinética , Trasplante de Células Madre/efectos adversos , Trombocitopenia/tratamiento farmacológico , Trombocitopenia/etiología , Acondicionamiento Pretrasplante/efectos adversos , Trasplante Autólogo , Irradiación Corporal Total/efectos adversos , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
PURPOSE: Local and distant failure rates remain high despite aggressive chemoradiation (CRT) treatment for Stage III non-small-cell lung cancer. We conducted preclinical studies of docetaxel's cytotoxic and radiosensitizing effects on lung cancer cell lines and designed a pilot study to target distant micrometastasis upfront with one-cycle induction chemotherapy, followed by low-dose radiosensitizing docetaxel CRT. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A preclinical study was conducted in human lung cancer cell lines NCI 520 and A549. Cells were treated with two concentrations of docetaxel for 3 h and then irradiated immediately or after a 24-h delay. A clonogenic survival assay was conducted and analyzed for cytotoxic effects vs. radiosensitizing effects of docetaxel. A pilot clinical study was designed based on preclinical study findings. Twenty-two patients were enrolled with a median follow-up of 4 years. Induction chemotherapy consisted of 75 mg/m(2) of docetaxel and 75 mg/m(2) of cisplatin on Day 1 and 150 mg/m(2) of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor on Days 2 through 10. Concurrent CRT was started 3 to 6 weeks later with twice-weekly docetaxel at 10 to 12 mg/m(2) and daily delayed radiation in 1.8-Gy fractions to 64.5 Gy for gross disease. RESULTS: The preclinical study showed potent cytotoxic effects of docetaxel and subadditive radiosensitizing effects. Delaying radiation resulted in more cancer cell death. The pilot clinical study resulted in a median survival of 32.6 months for the entire cohort, with 3- and 5-year survival rates of 50% and 19%, respectively, and a distant metastasis-free survival rate of 61% for both 3 and 5 years. A pattern-of-failure analysis showed 75% chest failures and 36% all-distant failures. Therapy was well tolerated with Grade 3 esophagitis observed in 23% of patients. CONCLUSIONS: One-cycle full-dose docetaxel/cisplatin induction chemotherapy with recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor followed by pulsed low-dose docetaxel CRT is promising with regard to its antitumor activity, low rates of distant failure, and low toxicity, suggesting that this regimen deserves further investigation.
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Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/radioterapia , Neoplasias Pulmonares/radioterapia , Fármacos Sensibilizantes a Radiaciones/uso terapéutico , Taxoides/uso terapéutico , Adulto , Anciano , Protocolos de Quimioterapia Combinada Antineoplásica/uso terapéutico , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/tratamiento farmacológico , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/mortalidad , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/patología , Línea Celular Tumoral , Cisplatino/administración & dosificación , Terapia Combinada/métodos , Docetaxel , Fraccionamiento de la Dosis de Radiación , Esquema de Medicación , Femenino , Estudios de Seguimiento , Factor Estimulante de Colonias de Granulocitos/administración & dosificación , Humanos , Neoplasias Pulmonares/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias Pulmonares/mortalidad , Neoplasias Pulmonares/patología , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Proyectos Piloto , Proteínas Recombinantes , Inducción de Remisión/métodos , Taxoides/administración & dosificación , Investigación Biomédica Traslacional/métodos , Ensayo de Tumor de Célula Madre/métodosRESUMEN
PURPOSE: Palliative chest radiotherapy (RT) for lung malignancies is effective in relieving serious chest symptoms from tumor bleeding or mass effect on major airways, vessels, and nerves. Albeit an important subject, there is a lack of consensus for an optimal palliative RT regimen. We report the outcomes of a split-course palliative chest RT, a frequently used schema at our institution. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Records of 140 patients treated between 1995 and 2006 were reviewed. Treatment was prescribed to an initial 25 Gy in 10 fractions through anterior-posterior/posterior-anterior beam arrangements. After a 2-week rest period, patients were selected to receive an additional 10 Gy (anterior-posterior/posterior-anterior) followed by off-cord beams to a final dose of 50 to 62.5 Gy. Symptom relief and toxicity during RT and after completion of RT were assessed from clinician notes and patient-reported symptom inventory forms. Second, the impact on survival was assessed. RESULTS: Symptomatic relief was observed in 52 to 84% of patients with durable palliation in 58%. There were no grade 3 to 5 toxicities. Grades 1 and 2 esophagitis and pneumonitis were observed in 34 and 8% patients, respectively. Median survival was 5 months. CONCLUSIONS: A majority of patients experienced symptomatic improvement. The built-in 2-week break allowed for selection of patients for high-dose palliative radiation and balanced treatment benefits with potential side effects. Cancer survival was not adversely affected by treatments in this population with mostly advanced disease. This regimen is a viable option for patients who cannot tolerate a protracted, uninterrupted course of treatment.
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Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/radioterapia , Neoplasias Pulmonares/radioterapia , Cuidados Paliativos , Adulto , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/patología , Fraccionamiento de la Dosis de Radiación , Femenino , Humanos , Neoplasias Pulmonares/patología , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Estadificación de Neoplasias , Modelos de Riesgos Proporcionales , Dosificación Radioterapéutica , Estudios Retrospectivos , Tasa de Supervivencia , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
PURPOSE: This retrospective study was done to better understand the conditions for which stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for glioblastoma may be efficacious. METHODS: Between 2000 and 2007, 33 patients with a pathological diagnosis of glioblastoma received SRS with the Novalis Shaped Beam Radiosurgery system. Eighteen patients (54%) underwent salvage SRS for recurrence while 15 (45%) patients received upfront SRS following standard fractionated RT for newly diagnosed glioblastoma. RESULTS: There were no RTOG grade >2 acute side effects. The median survival after SRS was 6.7 months (range 1.4 - 74.7). There was no significant difference in overall survival (from the time of initial diagnosis) with respect to the timing of SRS (p = 0.2). There was significantly better progression free survival in patients treated with SRS as consolidation versus at the time of recurrence (p = 0.04). The majority of patients failed within or at the margin of the SRS treatment volume (21/26 evaluable for recurrence). CONCLUSION: SRS is well tolerated in the treatment of glioblastoma. As there was no difference in survival whether SRS is delivered upfront or at recurrence, the treatment for each patient should be individualized. Future studies are needed to identify patients most likely to respond to SRS.
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Neoplasias Encefálicas/cirugía , Glioblastoma/cirugía , Radiocirugia , Adulto , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Neoplasias Encefálicas/mortalidad , Supervivencia sin Enfermedad , Femenino , Glioblastoma/mortalidad , Humanos , Estimación de Kaplan-Meier , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Radiocirugia/efectos adversos , Radiocirugia/métodos , Estudios Retrospectivos , Terapia Recuperativa/métodos , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
PURPOSE: We report the toxicity profile and pharmacokinetic data of a schedule-dependent chemoradiation regimen using pulsed low-dose paclitaxel for radiosensitization in a Phase I study for inoperable non-small-cell lung cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Paclitaxel at escalating doses of 15 mg/m(2), 20 mg/m(2), and 25 mg/m(2) were infused on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday with daily chest radiation in cohorts of 6 patients. Daily radiation was delayed for maximal G2/M arrest and apoptotic effect, an observation from preclinical investigations. Plasma paclitaxel concentration was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Dose-limiting toxicities included 3 of 18 patients with Grade 3 pneumonitis and 3 of 18 patients with Grade 3 esophagitis. There was no Grade 4 or 5 pneumonitis or esophagitis. There was also no Grade 3 or 4 neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia or neuropathy. For Dose Levels I (15 mg/m(2)), II (20 mg/m(2)), and III (25 mg/m(2)), the mean peak plasma level was 0.23 +/- 0.06 micromol/l, 0.32 +/- 0.05 micromol/l, and 0.52 +/- 0.14 micromol/l, respectively; AUC was 0.44 +/- 0.09 micromol/l, 0.61 +/- 0.1 micromol/l, and 0.96 +/- 0.23 micromol/l, respectively; and duration of drug concentration >0.05 micromol/l (t > 0.05 micromol/l) was 1.6 +/- 0.3 h, 1.9 +/- 0.2 h, and 3.0 +/- 0.9 h, respectively. CONCLUSION: Pulsed low-dose paclitaxel chemoradiation is associated with low toxicity. Pharmacokinetic data showed that plasma paclitaxel concentration >0.05 micromol/l for a minimum of 1.6 h was sufficient for effective radiosensitization.
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Antineoplásicos Fitogénicos/efectos adversos , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/radioterapia , Neoplasias Pulmonares/radioterapia , Paclitaxel/efectos adversos , Fármacos Sensibilizantes a Radiaciones/efectos adversos , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Antineoplásicos Fitogénicos/administración & dosificación , Antineoplásicos Fitogénicos/farmacocinética , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/tratamiento farmacológico , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/metabolismo , Carcinoma de Pulmón de Células no Pequeñas/patología , Femenino , Humanos , Neoplasias Pulmonares/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias Pulmonares/metabolismo , Neoplasias Pulmonares/patología , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Paclitaxel/administración & dosificación , Paclitaxel/farmacocinética , Fármacos Sensibilizantes a Radiaciones/administración & dosificación , Fármacos Sensibilizantes a Radiaciones/farmacocinéticaRESUMEN
This study evaluated the utility of human blood micronucleated reticulocyte (MNCD71+) frequency measurement as a cytogenetic damage biomarker. The analytical methodology was flow cytometry in conjunction with a previously described three color fluorescence labeling technique that includes anti-CD71 to focus analyses on the most immature fraction of reticulocytes [S.D. Dertinger, K. Camphausen, J.T. MacGregor, M.E. Bishop, D.K. Torous, S. Avlasevich, et al., Three-color labeling method for flow cytometric measurement of cytogenetic damage in rodent and human blood, Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 44 (2004) 427-435]. Blood specimens from 50 self-reported healthy adult volunteers were studied. In addition to MNCD71+ measurements, blood plasma folate and B12 levels were assessed, since these variables tend to influence other indices of cytogenetic damage. Time-course data are also provided for 10 cancer patients undergoing treatment. For these subjects, frequency of MNCD71+ was measured immediately before therapy, and daily during the first week of chemotherapy and/or fractionated radiotherapy. For the group of healthy volunteers, the variables of age, and folate and B12 levels demonstrated no significant effect on MNCD71+ frequency. In addition, no difference was observed between pre-treatment MNCD71+ values for cancer patients compared with healthy volunteers. Regarding chemotherapy and/or partial body radiotherapy, elevated frequencies were observed upon initiation of treatment for 9 of the 10 patients studied. Maximal effects were observed 3-5 days following initiation of therapy. The largest increases in frequency of MNCD71+ (up to 25.9-fold) were observed in those patients exposed to anti-neoplastic drugs, presumably due to the systemic red marrow exposure provided by these agents. Taken together, these data support the hypothesis that the MNCD71+ endpoint represents a valuable biomarker of cytogenetic damage that does not require cell culture or microscopy-based scoring.
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Automatización , Aberraciones Cromosómicas , Neoplasias/sangre , Reticulocitos/citología , Adulto , Antineoplásicos/uso terapéutico , Femenino , Citometría de Flujo , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Neoplasias/tratamiento farmacológico , Reticulocitos/ultraestructuraRESUMEN
PURPOSE: To explore the application of interleukin (IL)-1alpha and IL-6 measurements in the predictive diagnostic testing for symptomatic radiation pneumonitis (RP). METHODS AND MATERIALS: In a prospective protocol investigating RP and cytokines, IL-1alpha and IL-6 values were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay from serial weekly blood samples of patients receiving chest radiation. We analyzed sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) over selected threshold values for both cytokines in the application to diagnostic testing. RESULTS: The average coefficient of variation was 51% of the weekly mean IL-1alpha level and 39% of the weekly mean IL-6 value. Interleukin 1alpha and IL-6 became positively correlated with time. Specificity for both cytokines was better than sensitivity. IL-6 globally outperformed IL-1alpha in predicting RP, with higher PPV and NPV. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate the feasibility of applying IL-1alpha and IL-6 measurements of blood specimens to predict RP. Interleukin-6 measurements offer stronger positive predictive value than IL-1alpha. This application might be further explored in a larger sample of patients.
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Interleucina-1/sangre , Interleucina-6/sangre , Neumonitis por Radiación/diagnóstico , Adulto , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Biomarcadores/sangre , Ensayo de Inmunoadsorción Enzimática , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Valor Predictivo de las Pruebas , Estudios Prospectivos , Curva ROC , Sensibilidad y EspecificidadRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE: To analyze, retrospectively, the patterns and behavior of metastatic lesions in prostate cancer patients treated with external beam radiotherapy and to investigate whether patients with < or =5 lesions had an improved outcome relative to patients with >5 lesions. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The treatment and outcome of 369 eligible patients with Stage T1-T3aN0-NXM0 prostate cancer were analyzed during a minimal 10-year follow-up period. All patients were treated with curative intent to a mean dose of 65 Gy. The full history of any metastatic disease was documented for each subject, including the initial site of involvement, any progression over time, and patient survival. RESULTS: The overall survival rate for the 369 patients was 75% at 5 years and 45% at 10 years. The overall survival rate of patients who never developed metastases was 90% and 81% at 5 and 10 years, respectively. However, among the 74 patients (20%) who developed metastases, the survival rate at both 5 and 10 years was significantly reduced (p <0.0001). The overall survival rate for patients who developed bone metastases was 58% and 27% at 5 and 10 years, respectively, and patients with bone metastases to the pelvis fared worse compared with those with vertebral metastases. With regard to the metastatic number, patients with < or =5 metastatic lesions had superior survival rates relative to those with >5 lesions (73% and 36% at 5 and 10 years vs. 45% and 18% at 5 and 10 years, respectively; p = 0.02). In addition, both the metastasis-free survival rate and the interval measured from the date of the initial diagnosis of prostate cancer to the development of bone metastasis were statistically superior for patients with < or =5 lesions compared with patients with >5 lesions (p = 0.01 and 0.02, respectively). However, the survival rate and the interval from the date of diagnosis of bone metastasis to the time of death for patients in both groups were not significantly different, statistically (p = 0.17 and 0.27, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with < or =5 metastatic sites had significantly better survival rates than patients with >5 lesions. Because existing sites of metastatic disease may be the primary sites of origin for additional metastases, our findings suggest that early detection and aggressive treatment of patients with a small number of metastatic lesions is worth testing as an approach to improving long-term survival.
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Neoplasias Óseas/secundario , Neoplasias de la Próstata/patología , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Antagonistas de Andrógenos/uso terapéutico , Antineoplásicos Hormonales/uso terapéutico , Neoplasias Óseas/mortalidad , Neoplasias Encefálicas/mortalidad , Neoplasias Encefálicas/secundario , Humanos , Neoplasias Hepáticas/mortalidad , Neoplasias Hepáticas/secundario , Neoplasias Pulmonares/mortalidad , Neoplasias Pulmonares/secundario , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Estadificación de Neoplasias , Orquiectomía , Neoplasias de la Próstata/mortalidad , Neoplasias de la Próstata/radioterapia , Estudios Retrospectivos , Tasa de Supervivencia , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
The frequency of micronuclei (also known as Howell-Jolly bodies) in peripheral blood erythrocytes of humans is extremely low due to the efficiency with which the spleen sequesters and destroys these aberrant cells. In the past, this has precluded erythrocyte-based analyses from effectively measuring chromosome damage. In this report, we describe a high-throughput, single-laser flow cytometric system for scoring the incidence of micronucleated reticulocytes (MN-RET) in human blood. Differential staining of these cells was accomplished by combining the immunochemical reagent anti-CD71-FITC with a nucleic acid dye (propidium iodide plus RNase). The immunochemical reagent anti-CD42b-PE was also incorporated into the procedure in order to exclude platelets which can interfere with analysis. This analytical system was evaluated with blood samples from ten healthy volunteers, one splenectomized subject, as well as samples collected from nine cancer patients before and over the course of radio- or chemotherapy. The mean frequency of MN-RET observed for the healthy subjects was 0.09%. This value is nearly two orders of magnitude higher than frequencies observed in mature erythrocytes, and is approximately half the MN-RET frequency observed for the splenectomized subject (0.20%). This suggests that the spleen's effect on micronucleated cell incidence can be minimized by restricting analyses to the youngest (CD71-positive) fraction of reticulocytes. Furthermore, MN-RET frequencies were significantly elevated in patients undergoing cancer therapy. Collectively, these data establish that micronuclei can be quantified in human peripheral blood reticulocytes with a single-laser flow cytometer, and that these measurements reflect the level of chromosome damage which has occurred in red marrow space.
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Antígenos CD/metabolismo , Antígenos de Diferenciación de Linfocitos B/metabolismo , Aberraciones Cromosómicas , Citometría de Flujo/métodos , Reticulocitos/patología , Adulto , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Pruebas de Micronúcleos , Persona de Mediana Edad , Neoplasias/sangre , Neoplasias/metabolismo , Receptores de Transferrina , Reticulocitos/metabolismo , Esplenectomía , Enfermedades del Bazo/sangre , Enfermedades del Bazo/metabolismoRESUMEN
PURPOSE: A Phase I/II clinical study using pulsed low-dose paclitaxel and radiation for thoracic malignancy was conducted. The study was based on preclinical research of the effects of paclitaxel on apoptosis and the cell cycle in human cancer cell lines. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Three human epithelial cancer cell lines were investigated for preclinical study. Cells were analyzed for apoptosis and cell cycle characteristics after paclitaxel treatment. The Phase I/II clinical trial for non-small cell lung cancer used pulsed low-dose paclitaxel three times/week with the starting dose of 15 mg/m(2). Daily thoracic radiotherapy was delivered in 1.8 Gy/fraction to 60-65 Gy for gross disease and to 45-58 Gy for microscopic disease. Timing of radiotherapy was delayed to allow for a minimum of 4 h for cell cycle progression. RESULTS: Forty-one patients have enrolled and 33 completed treatments. Seventeen patients completed the Phase I study, with an average primary tumor shrinkage of 83 +/- 8% (95% confidence interval). Tumor response rate was 100% for the Phase I study. Overall local control was 98%, and the survival rate was 46% at 1 year, 33% at 2 years, and 18% at 3 years. Toxicity was low with 3 of 18 patients having grade 3 pneumonitis and 3 of 18 patients having grade 3 esophagitis. There was no grade 4 pneumonitis, esophagitis, or hematological toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: Pulsed low-dose paclitaxel radiosensitization for non-small cell lung cancer resulted in a superior local control rate and comparable survival rate when compared with chemoradiation regimens using systemic dose chemotherapy. The regimen is associated with low toxicity and deserves additional investigation, particularly in patients with poor performance or older age, who cannot tolerate standard chemoradiation regimens.
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Terapia Combinada , Paclitaxel/uso terapéutico , Fármacos Sensibilizantes a Radiaciones/uso terapéutico , Neoplasias Torácicas/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias Torácicas/radioterapia , Apoptosis , Ciclo Celular , Relación Dosis-Respuesta en la Radiación , Fase G2/efectos de los fármacos , Humanos , Dosis Máxima Tolerada , Mitosis/efectos de los fármacos , Neoplasias Torácicas/mortalidad , Factores de Tiempo , Tomografía Computarizada por Rayos X , Células Tumorales CultivadasRESUMEN
Radiation pneumonitis is a distinct clinical entity that differs from other pulmonary symptoms such as allergic pneumonitis, chemical pneumonitis, or pneumonia by various infectious agents. Recent research has supported the mechanism of cellular interaction between lung parenchymal cells and circulating immune cells mediated through a variety of cytokines including proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, and profibrotic cytokines. Identifying reliable biomarkers for radiation pneumonitis will allow us to identify individuals at risk for pneumonitis before or during the early stage of therapy. Prospective blood sampling, scoring of respiratory symptoms, and chest imaging were conducted for patients receiving thoracic radiotherapy for malignancy. Serial plasma specimens were analyzed for circulating cytokine changes before, during, and up to 12 weeks after radiation. Radiation pneumonitis was diagnosed using National Cancer Institute (NCI) common toxicity criteria. Cytokine analysis was assayed for interleukin 1alpha (IL-1alpha), interleukin 6 (IL-6), monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), E-selectin, L-selectin, transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1), and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) using enzyme linked immmunosorbant assay (ELISA). Twenty-four patients had clinical follow-up longer than 12 months after radiotherapy. Thirteen had symptomatic pneumonitis (NCI grade 2). The peak incidence of symptoms was between 6 and 13 weeks after radiotherapy. Six patients had only radiographic infiltrates (NCI grade 1). Five patients did not have clinical or radiographic pneumonitis. Both IL-1alpha and IL-6 levels were significantly higher before, during, and after radiotherapy for those who had pneumonitis. The pattern of changes of MCP-1, E-selectin, L-selectin, TGF-beta1, and bFGF varied, but none of these cytokines correlated with radiation pneumonitis. Analysis of a panel of circulating cytokines with different putative functions in radiation pulmonary injury identified IL-1alpha and IL-6 as early circulating cytokine markers for radiation pneumonitis.