RESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Over 180,000 people use crack cocaine in England, yet provision of smoking equipment to support safer crack use is prohibited under UK law. Pipes used for crack cocaine smoking are often homemade and/or in short supply, leading to pipe sharing and injuries from use of unsafe materials. This increases risk of viral infection and respiratory harm among a marginalised underserved population. International evaluations suggest crack pipe supply leads to sustained reductions in pipe sharing and use of homemade equipment; increased health risk awareness; improved service access; reduction in injecting and crack-related health problems. In this paper, we introduce the protocol for the NIHR-funded SIPP (Safe inhalation pipe provision) project and discuss implications for impact. METHODS: The SIPP study will develop, implement and evaluate a crack smoking equipment and training intervention to be distributed through peer networks and specialist drug services in England. Study components comprise: (1) peer-network capacity building and co-production; (2) a pre- and post-intervention survey at intervention and non-equivalent control sites; (3) a mixed-method process evaluation; and (4) an economic evaluation. Participant eligibility criteria are use of crack within the past 28 days, with a survey sample of ~ 740 for each impact evaluation survey point and ~ 40 for qualitative process evaluation interviews. Our primary outcome measure is pipe sharing within the past 28 days, with secondary outcomes pertaining to use of homemade pipes, service engagement, injecting practice and acute health harms. ANTICIPATED IMPACT: SIPP aims to reduce crack use risk practices and associated health harms; including through increasing crack harm reduction awareness among service providers and peers. Implementation has only been possible with local police approvals. Our goal is to generate an evidence base to inform review of the legislation prohibiting crack pipe supply in the UK. This holds potential to transform harm reduction service provision and engagement nationally. CONCLUSION: People who smoke crack cocaine in England currently have little reason to engage with harm reduction and drug services. Little is known about this growing population. This study will provide insight into population characteristics, unmet need and the case for legislative reform. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN12541454 https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN12541454.
Asunto(s)
Cocaína Crack , Humanos , Inglaterra , Análisis Costo-Beneficio , Reducción del Daño , Evaluación de Resultado en la Atención de SaludRESUMEN
Biosynthesis of the red, tripyrrole antibiotic prodigiosin (Pig) by Serratia sp. ATCC 39006 (39006) is controlled by a complex regulatory network involving an N-acyl homoserine lactone (N-AHL) quorum-sensing system, at least two separate two-component signal transduction systems and a multitude of other regulators. In this study, a new transcriptional activator, PigT, and a physiological cue (gluconate), which are involved in an independent pathway controlling Pig biosynthesis, have been characterized. PigT, a GntR homologue, activates transcription of the pigA-O biosynthetic operon in the absence of gluconate. However, addition of gluconate to the growth medium of 39006 repressed transcription of pigA-O, via a PigT-dependent mechanism, resulting in a decrease in Pig production. Finally, expression of the pigT transcript was shown to be maximal in exponential phase, preceding the onset of Pig production. This work expands our understanding of both the physiological and genetic factors that impinge on the biosynthesis of the secondary metabolite Pig in 39006.
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Antibacterianos/biosíntesis , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/fisiología , Proteínas de Escherichia coli/fisiología , Regulación Bacteriana de la Expresión Génica , Prodigiosina/biosíntesis , Proteínas Represoras/fisiología , Serratia/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/fisiología , Transcripción Genética , 4-Butirolactona/análogos & derivados , Genes Reguladores , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Serratia/genética , Serratia/crecimiento & desarrollo , Transducción de SeñalRESUMEN
Summary Serratia sp. ATCC 39006 (39006) uses a complex hierarchical regulatory network allowing multiple inputs to be assessed before genes involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis are expressed. This taxonomically ill-defined Serratia sp. produces a carbapenem antibiotic (Car; a beta-lactam) and a red pigmented antibiotic, prodigiosin (Pig; a tripyrrole), which are controlled by the smaIR quorum sensing (QS) locus. SmaR is a repressor of Pig and Car when levels of N-acyl- l-homoserine lactones, produced by SmaI, are low. In this study, we demonstrate direct DNA binding of purified SmaR to the promoter of the Car biosynthetic genes and abolition of this binding by the QS ligand. We have also identified multiple new secondary metabolite regulators. QS controls production of secondary metabolites, at least in part, by modulating transcription of three genes encoding regulatory proteins, including a putative response regulator of the GacAS two-component signalling system family, a novel putative adenylate cyclase and Rap (regulator of antibiotic and pigment). Mutations in another gene encoding a novel predicted global regulator, pigP, are highly pleiotropic; PigP has a significant "master" regulatory role in 39006 where it controls the transcription of six other regulators. The PigP protein and its homologues define a new family of regulators and are predicted to bind DNA via a helix-turn-helix domain. There are regulatory overlaps between the QS and PigP regulons that enable the information from different physiological cues to be funnelled into the control of secondary metabolite production.
Asunto(s)
Antibacterianos/biosíntesis , Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Carbapenémicos/biosíntesis , Regulación Bacteriana de la Expresión Génica , Prodigiosina/biosíntesis , Serratia/crecimiento & desarrollo , beta-Lactamas/metabolismo , Secuencia de Aminoácidos , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Secuencia de Bases , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Regiones Promotoras Genéticas , Serratia/genética , Serratia/metabolismo , Transcripción GenéticaRESUMEN
The biosynthetic pathway of the red-pigmented antibiotic, prodigiosin, produced by Serratia sp. is known to involve separate pathways for the production of the monopyrrole, 2-methyl-3-n-amyl-pyrrole (MAP) and the bipyrrole, 4-methoxy-2,2'-bipyrrole-5-carbaldehyde (MBC) which are then coupled in the final condensation step. We have previously reported the cloning, sequencing and heterologous expression of the pig cluster responsible for prodigiosin biosynthesis in two Serratia sp. In this article we report the creation of in-frame deletions or insertions in every biosynthetic gene in the cluster from Serratia sp. ATCC 39006. The biosynthetic intermediates accumulating in each mutant have been analysed by LC-MS, cross-feeding and genetic complementation studies. Based on these results we assign specific roles in the biosynthesis of MBC to the following Pig proteins: PigI, PigG, PigA, PigJ, PigH, PigM, PigF and PigN. We report a novel pathway for the biosynthesis of MAP, involving PigD, PigE and PigB. We also report a new chemical synthesis of MAP and one of its precursors, 3-acetyloctanal. Finally, we identify the condensing enzyme as PigC. We reassess the existing literature and discuss the significance of the results for the biosynthesis of undecylprodigiosin by the Red cluster in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2).
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Antibacterianos/biosíntesis , Prodigiosina/biosíntesis , Pirroles/metabolismo , Serratia/metabolismo , Streptomyces coelicolor/metabolismo , Estructura Molecular , Familia de Multigenes , Mutación , Prodigiosina/análogos & derivados , Prodigiosina/química , Pirroles/química , Serratia/genéticaRESUMEN
The prodigiosin biosynthesis gene cluster (pig cluster) from two strains of Serratia (S. marcescens ATCC 274 and Serratia sp. ATCC 39006) has been cloned, sequenced and expressed in heterologous hosts. Sequence analysis of the respective pig clusters revealed 14 ORFs in S. marcescens ATCC 274 and 15 ORFs in Serratia sp. ATCC 39006. In each Serratia species, predicted gene products showed similarity to polyketide synthases (PKSs), non-ribosomal peptide synthases (NRPSs) and the Red proteins of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). Comparisons between the two Serratia pig clusters and the red cluster from Str. coelicolor A3(2) revealed some important differences. A modified scheme for the biosynthesis of prodigiosin, based on the pathway recently suggested for the synthesis of undecylprodigiosin, is proposed. The distribution of the pig cluster within several Serratia sp. isolates is demonstrated and the presence of cryptic clusters in some strains shown. The pig cluster of Serratia marcescens ATCC 274 is flanked by cueR and copA homologues and this configuration is demonstrated in several S. marcescens strains, whilst these genes are contiguous in strains lacking the pig cluster.
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Genes Bacterianos , Variación Genética , Prodigiosina/biosíntesis , Serratia/genética , Serratia/metabolismo , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Southern Blotting , Dermatoglifia del ADN , ADN Bacteriano/química , ADN Bacteriano/aislamiento & purificación , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Orden Génico , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Familia de Multigenes , Sistemas de Lectura Abierta , Péptido Sintasas/genética , Sintasas Poliquetidas/genética , Análisis de Secuencia de ADN , Homología de Secuencia de Aminoácido , Streptomyces coelicolor/genéticaRESUMEN
Serratia sp. ATCC 39006 produces two secondary metabolite antibiotics, 1-carbapen-2-em-3-carboxylic acid (Car) and the red pigment, prodigiosin (Pig). We have previously reported that production of Pig and Car is controlled by N-acyl homoserine lactone (N-AHL) quorum sensing, with synthesis of N-AHLs directed by the LuxI homologue SmaI, and is also regulated by Rap, a member of the SlyA family. We now describe further characterization of the SmaI quorum-sensing system and its connection with other regulatory mechanisms. We show that the genes responsible for biosynthesis of Pig, pigA-O, are transcribed as a single polycistronic message in an N-AHL-dependent manner. The smaR gene, transcribed convergently with smaI and predicted to encode the LuxR homologue partner of SmaI, was shown to possess a negative regulatory function, which is uncommon among the LuxR-type transcriptional regulators. SmaR represses transcription of both the pig and car gene clusters in the absence of N-AHLs. Specifically, we show that SmaIR exerts its effect on car gene expression via transcriptional control of carR, encoding a pheromone-independent LuxR homologue. Transcriptional activation of the pig and car gene clusters also requires a functional Rap protein, but Rap dependency can be bypassed by secondary mutations. Transduction of these suppressor mutations into wild-type backgrounds confers a hyper-Pig phenotype. Multiple mutations cluster in a region upstream of the pigA gene, suggesting this region may represent a repressor target site. Two mutations mapped to genes encoding pstS and pstA homologues, which are parts of a high-affinity phosphate transport system (Pst) in Escherichia coli. Disruption of pstS mimicked phosphate limitation and caused concomitant hyper-production of Pig and Car, which was mediated, in part, through increased transcription of the smaI gene. The Pst and SmaIR systems define distinct, yet overlapping, regulatory circuits which form part of a complex regulatory network controlling the production of secondary metabolites in Serratia ATCC 39006.
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4-Butirolactona/análogos & derivados , Antibacterianos/biosíntesis , Carbapenémicos/biosíntesis , Regulación Bacteriana de la Expresión Génica , Fosfatos/metabolismo , Prodigiosina/biosíntesis , Serratia/crecimiento & desarrollo , 4-Butirolactona/metabolismo , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Secuencia de Bases , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Fosfatos/farmacología , Serratia/genética , Serratia/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal , Transcripción GenéticaRESUMEN
Erwinia carotovora is a Gram-negative bacterial phytopathogen that causes soft-rot disease and potato blackleg. The organism is environmentally widespread and exhibits an opportunistic plant pathogenesis. The ability to secrete multiple plant cell wall-degrading enzymes is a key virulence trait and exoenzyme production is responsive to multiple environmental and physiological cues. One important cue is the cell population density of the pathogen. Cell density is monitored via an acylated homoserine lactone (acyl HSL) signalling molecule, which is thought to diffuse between Erwinia cells in a process now commonly known as 'quorum sensing'. This molecule also acts as the chemical communication signal controlling production of a broad-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic (1-carbapen-2-em-3-carboxylic acid; carbapenem) synthesised in concert with exoenzyme elaboration, possibly for niche defence. In antibiotic production control, quorum sensing acts at the level of transcriptional activation of the antibiotic biosynthetic cluster. This is achieved via a dedicated LuxR-type protein, CarR that is bound to the signalling molecule. The molecular relay connecting acyl HSL production and exoenzyme induction is not clear, despite the identification of a multitude of global regulatory genes, including those of the RsmA/rsmB system, impinging on enzyme synthesis. Quorum sensing control mediated by acyl HSLs is widespread in Gram-negative bacteria and is responsible for the regulation of diverse phenotypes. Although there is still a paucity of meaningful information on acyl HSL availability and in-situ biological function, there is growing evidence that such molecules play significant roles in microbial ecology.