RESUMEN
The effects during healthy aging of the tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage-gated sodium channel 1.8 (Nav1.8), the acid-sensing ion channel-3 (ASIC3), the purinergic-receptor 2X3 (P2X3) and transient receptor potential of melastatin-8 (TRPM8) on responses to non-noxious stimuli are poorly understood. These effects will influence the transferability to geriatric subjects of findings obtained using young animals. To evaluate the involvement of these functional markers in mechanical and cold sensitivity to non-noxious stimuli and their underlying mechanisms, we used a combination of immunohistochemistry and quantitation of immunostaining in sub-populations of neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), behavioral tests, pharmacological interventions and Western-blot in healthy male Wistar rats from 3 to 24 months of age. We found significantly decreased sensitivity to mechanical and cold stimuli in geriatric rats. These behavioural alterations occurred simultaneously with differing changes in the expression of Nav1.8, ASIC3, P2X3 and TRPM8 in the DRG at different ages. Using pharmacological blockade in vivo we demonstrated the involvement of ASIC3 and P2X3 in normal mechanosensation and of Nav1.8 and ASIC3 in cold sensitivity. Geriatric rats also exhibited reductions in the number of A-like large neurons and in the proportion of peptidergic to non-peptidergic neurons. The changes in normal sensory physiology in geriatric rats we report here strongly support the inclusion of aged rodents as an important group in the design of pre-clinical studies evaluating pain treatments.
Asunto(s)
Envejecimiento Saludable , Canales Catiónicos TRPM , Ratas , Masculino , Animales , Canales Iónicos Sensibles al Ácido/metabolismo , Ratas Sprague-Dawley , Ratas Wistar , Células Receptoras Sensoriales/metabolismo , Canales Catiónicos TRPM/metabolismoRESUMEN
Neuropathic and inflammatory pain results from cellular and molecular changes in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. The type-2 receptor for Angiotensin-II (AT2R) has been involved in this type of pain. However, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood, including the role of the type-1 receptor for Angiotensin-II (AT1R). Here, we used a combination of immunohistochemistry and immunocytochemistry, RT-PCR and in vitro and in vivo pharmacological manipulation to examine how cutaneous inflammation affected the expression of AT1R and AT2R in subpopulations of rat DRG neurons and studied their impact on inflammation-induced neuritogenesis. We demonstrated that AT2R-neurons express C- or A-neuron markers, primarily IB4, trkA, and substance-P. AT1R expression was highest in small neurons and co-localized significantly with AT2R. In vitro, an inflammatory soup caused significant elevation of AT2R mRNA, whereas AT1R mRNA levels remained unchanged. In vivo, we found a unique pattern of change in the expression of AT1R and AT2R after cutaneous inflammation. AT2R increased in small neurons at 1 day and in medium size neurons at 4 days. Interestingly, cutaneous inflammation increased AT1R levels only in large neurons at 4 days. We found that in vitro and in vivo AT1R and AT2R acted co-operatively to regulate DRG neurite outgrowth. In vivo, AT2R inhibition impacted more on non-peptidergic C-neurons neuritogenesis, whereas AT1R blockade affected primarily peptidergic nerve terminals. Thus, cutaneous-induced inflammation regulated AT1R and AT2R expression and function in different DRG neuronal subpopulations at different times. These findings must be considered when targeting AT1R and AT2R to treat chronic inflammatory pain. Cover Image for this issue: doi: 10.1111/jnc.14737.
Asunto(s)
Dermatitis/fisiopatología , Receptor de Angiotensina Tipo 1/fisiología , Receptor de Angiotensina Tipo 2/fisiología , Células Receptoras Sensoriales/fisiología , Animales , Células Cultivadas , Dermatitis/etiología , Femenino , Adyuvante de Freund/administración & dosificación , Ganglios Espinales/citología , Neuritas/fisiología , Dolor/fisiopatología , Ratas , Ratas Wistar , Receptor de Angiotensina Tipo 1/análisis , Receptor de Angiotensina Tipo 2/análisis , Células Receptoras Sensoriales/química , Piel/inervaciónRESUMEN
BACKGROUND/AIMS: Few studies address the long-term consequences of perinatal hypoxia (H), a frequent birth complication. Previously we described advanced reproductive senescence (premature loss of regular cyclicity) in female rats subjected to perinatal H or H plus unilateral ischemia (HI) associated with changes in the hypothalamic expression of estrogen and opioid receptors. Our aim is to explore whether hypothalamic inflammation and oxidative damage mediate these reproductive alterations. METHODS: Female rats were subjected on postnatal day (PND) 7 to H (6.5% O2 for 50 min) or HI (H + right carotid artery ligature) and inflammation/oxidative damage markers, such as iNOS, nNOS, insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system expression, glial reaction and macrophage invasion in the medial basal hypothalamus-preoptic area (GFAP Western blot and immunohistochemistry, ED1 immunohistochemistry), were determined. The effect of antioxidant treatment with vitamin E (VE; 1.5 mg/rat on PND 4, 6 and 8) was also explored. RESULTS: No significant cellular inflammatory reactions were observed although GFAP protein was significantly increased at early times after injury. Forty-eight hours after injury iNOS, nNOS and IGF-I mRNA decreased in the HI group, and nNOS in the H group. IGFBP-3 mRNA increased in HI rats at 48 h and 30 days, while it fell at 7 days postinjury in both groups. VE treatment prevented the effects of HI on oxidation/inflammation markers, but did not prevent the premature onset of reproductive senescence or the altered hormone receptors expression. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the oxidative and inflammatory damage caused by perinatal H or HI may not be responsible for the late-onset reproductive abnormalities.
Asunto(s)
Envejecimiento/efectos de los fármacos , Antioxidantes/uso terapéutico , Regulación del Desarrollo de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Hipoxia-Isquemia Encefálica/tratamiento farmacológico , Reproducción/efectos de los fármacos , Vitamina E/uso terapéutico , Animales , Animales Recién Nacidos , Astrocitos/metabolismo , Astrocitos/patología , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Encéfalo/patología , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Ciclo Estral , Femenino , Lateralidad Funcional , Regulación del Desarrollo de la Expresión Génica/genética , Hormonas/sangre , Hipoxia-Isquemia Encefálica/patología , Hipoxia-Isquemia Encefálica/fisiopatología , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Macrófagos/patología , Embarazo , Ratas , Ratas Sprague-DawleyRESUMEN
Angiotensin II (Ang II) binds and activates two major receptors subtypes, namely AT(1) and AT(2). In the fetus, AT(2) receptors predominate in all tissues and decline shortly after birth, being restricted to a few organs including brain. Interpretation of the function of Ang II in the cerebellum requires a thorough understanding of the localization of Ang II receptors. The aim of the present paper is to evaluate the localization of Ang II AT(2) receptors in the Purkinje cell (PC) layer during development. By binding autoradiography, a clear complementary pattern of AT(1) and AT(2) binding labeled by [(125)I] Ang II was observed in young rats within the cerebellar cortex. This pattern was present at the stages P8 and P15, but not at P30 and P60, where AT(2) binding appears low and superimposed with AT(1) binding. We demonstrate that AT(2) antibodies recognized postmitotic Purkinje cells, labeling the somata of these cells at all the stages studied, from P8 to P60, suggesting that PCs express these receptors from early stages of development until adulthood. In P8 and P15 animals, we observed a clear correspondence between immunolabeling and the well-defined layer observed by binding autoradiography. Confocal analysis allowed us to discard the co-localization of AT(2) receptors with glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a glial marker. Double immunolabeling allowed us to demonstrate the co-localization of Ang II AT(2) receptors with zebrin II, a specific PC marker. Since PCs are the sole output signal from the cerebellar cortex and considering the role of cerebellum in movement control, the specific receptor localization suggests a potential role for Ang II AT(2) receptors in the cerebellar function.
Asunto(s)
Cerebelo/citología , Cerebelo/crecimiento & desarrollo , Células de Purkinje/metabolismo , Receptor de Angiotensina Tipo 2/metabolismo , Angiotensina II/metabolismo , Animales , Autorradiografía , Cerebelo/metabolismo , Masculino , Ratas , Ratas WistarRESUMEN
Evidence suggests that Angiotensin II plays an important role in the complex process of renal organogenesis. Rat kidney organogenesis starts between E13-14 and lasts up to 2 weeks after birth. The present study demonstrates histologic modifications and changes in receptor localisation in animals born from mothers treated with Angiotensin II, Losartan or PD123319 (1.0 mg/kg/day) during late pregnancy. Angiotensin II-treated animals exhibited very well developed tubules in the renal medulla in coincidence with higher AT(1) binding. Control animals exhibited angiotensin AT(2) binding in the outer stripe of the outer medulla, while in the Angiotensin II-treated animals binding was observed to the inner stripe. In Angiotensin II-treated 1-week-old animals, the nephrogenic zone contained fewer immature structures, and more developed collecting tubules than control animals. Treatment with Losartan resulted in severe renal abnormalities. For newborn and 1-week-old animals, glomeruli exhibited altered shape and enlarged Bowman spaces, in concordance with a loss of [(125)I]Angiotensin II binding in the cortex. Blockade with PD123319 led to an enlarged nephrogenic zone with increased number of immature glomeruli, and less glomeruli in the juxtamedullary area. Autoradiography showed a considerable loss of AT(1) binding in the kidney cortex of PD123319-treated animals at both ages. The present results show for the first time histomorphological and receptor localisation alterations following treatment with low doses of Losartan and PD123319 during pregnancy. These observations confirm previous assumptions that in the developing kidney Angiotensin II exerts stimulatory effects through AT(1) receptors that might be counterbalanced by angiotensin AT(2) receptors.
Asunto(s)
Anomalías Inducidas por Medicamentos/patología , Bloqueadores del Receptor Tipo 1 de Angiotensina II/toxicidad , Bloqueadores del Receptor Tipo 2 de Angiotensina II , Riñón/anomalías , Preñez/fisiología , Envejecimiento/metabolismo , Angiotensina II/antagonistas & inhibidores , Angiotensina II/farmacología , Animales , Animales Recién Nacidos , Autorradiografía , Femenino , Imidazoles/toxicidad , Riñón/patología , Glomérulos Renales/efectos de los fármacos , Glomérulos Renales/patología , Losartán/toxicidad , Embarazo , Piridinas/toxicidad , Ratas , Ratas Wistar , Receptor de Angiotensina Tipo 1/metabolismo , Receptor de Angiotensina Tipo 2/metabolismo , Sistema Renina-Angiotensina/efectos de los fármacos , Sistema Renina-Angiotensina/fisiologíaRESUMEN
Perinatal hypoxia is a frequent birth complication, and although its early consequences on brain development have been well studied, few studies address any long-term effects. Postnatal insults producing small disturbances in endocrine function can have marked and long-lasting effects. In the present work we studied the effects of two types of perinatal brain injury: global hypoxia (H, 6.5% O2 for 50 min) and hypoxia plus ischemia (HI, ligature of the right carotid artery) on female rat reproductive performance and expression of mediobasal hypothalamus-preoptic area (MBH-PO) estrogen, progesterone and micro-opioid receptors at different times after injury, measuring the mRNA (by semiquantitative RT-PCR) and protein (by Western blot). H or HI advanced approximately 3 months after the appearance of blunted preovulatory LH surges and cyclic irregularities (prolonged estrus) characteristic of the early stages of reproductive senescence. 48 h after H or HI we observed decreases in ERbeta, microOR and PR (only in the H group) mRNAs and in total ER and microOR proteins, followed by increased PR levels (mRNA and protein) 7 days post-injury and by increased microOR protein and ERbeta mRNA in the H group and ERalpha, ERbeta and microOR mRNAs and ER protein in the HI group 30 days post-injury. Thus, an episode of hypoxia suffered during early postnatal life induces premature reproductive senescence on the female rats, accompanied by early changes in some MBH-PO hormone receptors (microOR, ER and PR), whose expression is intimately involved in the regulation of gonadotropin secretion and female sexual cyclicity.
Asunto(s)
Estrógenos/metabolismo , Regulación del Desarrollo de la Expresión Génica/fisiología , Hipoxia/fisiopatología , Progesterona/metabolismo , Receptores Opioides mu/metabolismo , Reproducción/fisiología , Factores de Edad , Análisis de Varianza , Animales , Animales Recién Nacidos , Estrógenos/genética , Femenino , Lateralidad Funcional , Hipoxia/metabolismo , Isquemia/metabolismo , Isquemia/fisiopatología , Progesterona/genética , ARN Mensajero/metabolismo , Ratas , Ratas Sprague-Dawley , Receptores Opioides mu/genéticaRESUMEN
We assessed immunoreactivity (IR) in the cerebral cortex (CC), hippocampus (Hipp), and striatum (ST) of a growth-associated protein, GAP-43, and of proteins of the synaptic vesicle fusion complex: VAMP-2, Syntaxin-1, and SNAP-25 (SNARE proteins) throughout postnatal development of rats after submitting the animals to acute global postnatal hypoxia (6.5% O(2), 70 min) at postnatal day 4 (PND4). In the CC only the IR of the SNARE protein SNAP-25 increased significantly with age. The hypoxic animals showed the same pattern of IR for SNAP-25, although with lower levels at PND11, and also a significant increase of VAMP-2. SNAP-25 (control): PND11 P < 0.001 vs. PND18, 25, and 40, SNAP-25 (hypoxic): P < 0.001 vs. PND18, 25, and 40; VAMP-2 (hypoxic): P < 0.05 PND11 vs. PND18, and P < 0.01 vs. PND25 and PND40; one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni post-test. In the Hipp, SNAP-25 and syntaxin-1 increased significantly with age, reaching a plateau at PND25 through PND40 in control animals (one-way ANOVA: syntaxin-1: P = 0.043; Bonferroni: NS; SNAP-25: P = 0.013; Bonferroni: P < 0.01 PND11 vs. PND40). Hypoxic rats showed higher levels of significance in the one-way ANOVA than controls (syntaxin-1: P = 0.009; Bonferroni: P < 0.05 PND11 vs. PND25 and P < 0.001 PND11 vs. PND40). In the ST, GAP-43 differed significantly among hypoxic and control animals and the two-way ANOVA revealed significant differences with age (F = 3.23; P = 0.037) and treatment (F = 4.84; P = 0.036). VAMP-2 expression also reached statistical significance when comparing control and treated animals (F = 6.25, P = 0.018) without changes regarding to age. Elevated plus maze test performed at PND40 indicated a lower level of anxiety in the hypoxic animals. At adulthood (12 weeks) learning, memory and locomotor abilities were identical in both groups of animals. With these results, we demonstrate that proteins of the presynaptic structures of the ST are sensitive to acute disruption of homeostatic conditions, such as a temporary decrease of the O(2) concentration. Modifications in the activity of these proteins could contribute to the long term altered responses to stress due to acute hypoxic insult in the neonatal period.
Asunto(s)
Cuerpo Estriado/metabolismo , Proteína GAP-43/metabolismo , Hipoxia Encefálica/metabolismo , Regulación hacia Arriba/fisiología , Enfermedad Aguda , Envejecimiento/fisiología , Animales , Animales Recién Nacidos , Trastornos de Ansiedad/etiología , Trastornos de Ansiedad/metabolismo , Trastornos de Ansiedad/fisiopatología , Cámaras de Exposición Atmosférica , Corteza Cerebral/metabolismo , Corteza Cerebral/fisiopatología , Cuerpo Estriado/fisiopatología , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Hipocampo/metabolismo , Hipocampo/fisiopatología , Hipoxia Encefálica/fisiopatología , Inmunohistoquímica , Trastornos de la Memoria/metabolismo , Trastornos de la Memoria/fisiopatología , Ratas , Ratas Sprague-Dawley , Estrés Fisiológico/metabolismo , Estrés Fisiológico/fisiopatología , Proteína 25 Asociada a Sinaptosomas/metabolismo , Sintaxina 1/metabolismo , Proteína 2 de Membrana Asociada a Vesículas/metabolismoRESUMEN
The neocortex and the striatum are the brain regions most known to be particularly vulnerable to acute insults like hypoxia or ischemia. In this work, we assess the possibility of cellular damage to the substantia nigra (SN) after hypoxia-reoxygenation in the new born rat. The aim of the present paper was to evaluate the expression of growth factor IGF-I, and growth factor binding proteins IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-5 genes and induction of NOS family members (nNOS, eNOS and iNOS) and TNF-alpha genes together with glia activation, in the SN at 5 and 48 h after severe hypoxia in the 7 day-old rat, a model for the term human fetus. At early time, while IGFs remain unchanged, we found a transient increase in eNOS and nNOS. Two days after the injury, nNOS expression remained high, iNOS and TNF-alpha increased and also GFAP protein expression was observed together with a profusion of reactive astrocytes distributed throughout the SN. This study on the acute effects of hypoxia on the developing brain provides additional insights into the vulnerability of the SN, a brain region involved in neurodegenerative pathologies.