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PURPOSE: The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) provides an ideal model to study early development of primates, and an in vivo platform to validate conclusions from in vitro studies of human embryos and embryo models. Currently, however, no established staging atlas of marmoset embryonic development exists. Using high-resolution, longitudinal ultrasound scans on live pregnant marmosets, we present the first dynamic in vivo imaging of entire primate gestation beginning with attachment until the last day before birth. METHODS: Our study unveils the first dynamic images of an in vivo attached mammalian embryo developing in utero, and the intricacies of the delayed development period unique to the common marmoset amongst primates, revealing a window for somatic interventions. RESULTS: Established obstetric and embryologic measurements for each scan were used comparatively with the standardized Carnegie staging of human development to highlight similarities and differences. Our study also allows for tracking the development of major organs. We focus on the ontogeny of the primate heart and brain. Finally, input ultrasound images were used to train deep neural networks to accurately determine the gestational age. All our ultrasounds and staging data recording are posted online so that the atlas can be used as a community resource toward monitoring and managing marmoset breeding colonies. CONCLUSION: The temporal and spatial resolution of ultrasound achieved in this study demonstrates the promise of noninvasive imaging in the marmoset for the in vivo study of primate-specific aspects of embryonic and fetal development.

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Topographic sensory maps are a prominent feature of the adult primate brain. Here, we asked whether topographic representations of the body are present at birth. Using functional MRI (fMRI), we find that the newborn somatomotor system, spanning frontoparietal cortex and subcortex, comprises multiple topographic representations of the body. The organization of these large-scale body maps was indistinguishable from those in older monkeys. Finer-scale differentiation of individual fingers increased over the first 2 y, suggesting that topographic representations are refined during early development. Last, we found that somatomotor representations were unchanged in 2 visually impaired monkeys who relied on touch for interacting with their environment, demonstrating that massive shifts in early sensory experience in an otherwise anatomically intact brain are insufficient for driving cross-modal plasticity. We propose that a topographic scaffolding is present at birth that both directs and constrains experience-driven modifications throughout somatosensory and motor systems.

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Our assignment was to review the development of the face-processing network, an assignment that carries the presupposition that a face-specific developmental program exists. We hope to cast some doubt on this assumption and instead argue that the development of face processing is guided by the same ubiquitous rules that guide the development of cortex in general.

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What specific features should visual neurons encode, given the infinity of real-world images and the limited number of neurons available to represent them? We investigated neuronal selectivity in monkey inferotemporal cortex via the vast hypothesis space of a generative deep neural network, avoiding assumptions about features or semantic categories. A genetic algorithm searched this space for stimuli that maximized neuronal firing. This led to the evolution of rich synthetic images of objects with complex combinations of shapes, colors, and textures, sometimes resembling animals or familiar people, other times revealing novel patterns that did not map to any clear semantic category. These results expand our conception of the dictionary of features encoded in the cortex, and the approach can potentially reveal the internal representations of any system whose input can be captured by a generative model.

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Here we report that monkeys raised without exposure to faces did not develop face domains, but did develop domains for other categories and did show normal retinotopic organization, indicating that early face deprivation leads to a highly selective cortical processing deficit. Therefore, experience must be necessary for the formation (or maintenance) of face domains. Gaze tracking revealed that control monkeys looked preferentially at faces, even at ages prior to the emergence of face domains, but face-deprived monkeys did not, indicating that face looking is not innate. A retinotopic organization is present throughout the visual system at birth, so selective early viewing behavior could bias category-specific visual responses toward particular retinotopic representations, thereby leading to domain formation in stereotyped locations in inferotemporal cortex, without requiring category-specific templates or biases. Thus, we propose that environmental importance influences viewing behavior, viewing behavior drives neuronal activity, and neuronal activity sculpts domain formation.

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Face recognition is highly proficient in humans and other social primates; it emerges in infancy, but the development of the neural mechanisms supporting this behaviour is largely unknown. We use blood-volume functional MRI to monitor longitudinally the responsiveness to faces, scrambled faces, and objects in macaque inferotemporal cortex (IT) from 1 month to 2 years of age. During this time selective responsiveness to monkey faces emerges. Some functional organization is present at 1 month; face-selective patches emerge over the first year of development, and are remarkably stable once they emerge. Face selectivity is refined by a decreasing responsiveness to non-face stimuli.

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There is a large population of patients with end-stage congestive heart failure who cannot be treated by means of conventional cardiac surgery, cardiac transplantation, or chronic catecholamine infusions. Implantable cardiac devices, many designated as destination therapy, have revolutionized patient care and outcomes, although infection and complications related to external power sources or routine battery exchange remain a substantial risk. Complications from repeat battery replacement, power failure, and infections ultimately endanger the original objectives of implantable biomedical device therapy - eliminating the intended patient autonomy, affecting patient quality of life and survival. We sought to review the limitations of current cardiac biomedical device energy sources and discuss the current state and trends of future potential energy sources in pursuit of a lifelong fully implantable biomedical device.

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