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Resumen Introducción: El objetivo del estudio fue determinar las características sociodemográficas, el uso de redes, la autopercepción de salud, las necesidades y los recursos de las personas en situación de calle con problemas de salud mental y/o consumo problemático de alcohol y/o drogas, en la región del Bío Bío (Chile). Método: Entre los meses de diciembre de 2014 y marzo de 2015, se obtuvo información de una muestra por conveniencia de 65 habitantes de calle con antecedentes de problemas mentales, vinculados a programas de la Secretaría Regional Ministerial (SEREMI) de Desarrollo Social. Se emplearon instrumentos de caracterización sociodemográfica, la Escala Maristán de Necesidades y el inventario de recursos para personas en situación de calle. Resultados: La muestra está constituida principalmente por hombres, con edad promedio de 41 años. Se caracteriza por tener bajo nivel escolar y condiciones de inestabilidad laboral, así como una moderada percepción de salud física y mental. Las personas tienen más necesidades sanitarias, de trabajo y uso del tiempo libre, y existenciales, que de la vida cotidiana. El Estado y la familia son las principales fuentes de apoyo para esta población. Conclusiones: Los hallazgos de la presente investigación, permiten realizar una primera aproximación al perfil sociodemográfico, de percepción de salud y de necesidades de las persona en situación de calle con problemas mentales y/o abuso problemático de alcohol y/o drogas. A partir de los resultados es posible determinar una línea de base para proponer futuros programas de atención en la región.

Introduction: The objective of the study was to determine the socio-demographic characteristics, the use of nets, the self-perception of health, needs and resources of persons in streets with problems of mental health or problematic consumption of alcohol and/or drugs, in the Bio Bio region (Chile). Method: Between the months of December 2014 and March 2015, information was obtained from a sample of convenience of 65 homeless persons with a history of mental problems, linked to programs of the Secretaría Regional Ministerial (SEREMI) of social development. Socio-demographic characterization instruments were used, the Maristán Scale of Needs and Inventory of Resources for Homeless People. Results: The General characteristics of the sample include being male, with an average age of 41 years. The sample is characterized by low scholastic level and conditions of job instability, as well as a regular perception of physical and mental health. People have more needs health, work, use of the free time, and existentials, that of everyday life. The State and the family are the main sources of support for this population. Conclusions: The findings of this research, allow a first approach to the socio-demographic profile, perception of health and needs of the homeless persons with mental health problems and/or problematic abuse of alcohol and/or drugs. From the results it is possible to determine a baseline for future programmes in the region. Rev Chil Neuro-Psiquiat 2018; 56 (2): 89-99

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Resumen El Ministerio de Salud de Chile implementó, a partir del año 2001, el programa de tratamiento de la depresión en la Atención Primaria en Salud (APS). Objetivo general: Evaluar el resultado de las acciones de detección, diagnóstico y tratamiento del episodio depresivo realizadas en consultantes del primer nivel de atención de la Provincia de Concepción, Chile. Método: Seguimiento de seis meses de muestra aleatoria de usuarios consultantes por morbilidad general en centros APS Provincia de Concepción, Chile. Se ingresaron al estudio 307 usuarios, con diagnóstico positivo de depresión (DSM-IV), usando la entrevista psiquiátrica estructurada Composite International Diagnostic Interview 2.1 (CIDI). Se realizaron análisis de regresión logística binaria y ordinal para predecir la detección del trastorno, el tipo de tratamiento aplicado y el curso de la enfermedad a partir de las variables sociodemográficas, clínicas y de estructura. Resultados: La prevalencia de seis meses de depresión fue de 16.7% (n = 431), previo criterios de exclusión. Los médicos detectaron el 31,6% de los casos, existiendo marcadas diferencias por centro. En su mayoría las intervenciones fueron de tipos psicosociales (18,6%), seguidas por las farmacológicas(9,4%) y un 3,6% con ambos tipos. Al cabo de seis meses, el diagnóstico había remitido en un 60.7% de los usuarios. Sin embargo, esta evolución no estaba asociada a las intervenciones recibidas, ni al diagnóstico previo, sino a variables personales de los usuarios. Conclusiones: La capacidad de detección de los profesionales en APS es baja, las intervenciones son escasas y no parecen incidir sobre la evolución del diagnóstico.

The Chilean Ministry of Health implemented since 2001 the program for treating depression in primary health care (PCH). General objective: To evaluate the result of detection, diagnostic and treatment of depressive episodes performed by consultants of the first level of care in the Province of Concepción, Chile. Method: Follow-up of six months of a random sample of users consulting for general morbidity in PHC of the Province of Concepción, Chile. A total of 307 users with positive diagnosis of depression (DSM-IV) using the psychiatric structured Composite International Diagnostic Interview 2.1 (CIDI) were admitted to the study. Regression analyses, binary and ordinal logistic were performed to predict the detection of the disorder, the type of treatment applied and the course of the disease, from sociodemographic, clinical and structure variables. Results: The prevalence of six months of depression reached 16.5% (n=431), prior to exclusion criteria. Doctors detected the 31.6% of the cases, with significant differences per center. Most of the interventions were of the psychosocial type (18.6%), followed by pharmacological interventions (9.4%) and 3.6% of both types. After six months, the diagnosis had remitted in 60-7% of the users. However, this evolution was not linked to the interventions received or previous diagnosis, but to personal variables of the users. Conclusions: The detection capacity of the professionals in PHC is low, interventions are scarce and probably, the evolution of the diagnosis is not affected by the intervention.

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Resumen El sobrediagnóstico de trastornos mentales es una preocupación creciente, que se acentuó tras la publicación del DSM-V. Jerome Wakefield es un destacado crítico de la psicopatologización que, sin embargo, ha desarrollado un intenso trabajo para intentar delimitar mejor qué es un trastorno mental sin rechazar este concepto. Se realizó una revisión estructurada de la obra de este autor. Se resumen sus principales planteamientos y se realiza una valoración de su aporte al debate relativo a este tema.

Overdiagnosis of mental disorders is an increasing concern, which was accentuated after the publication of the DSM-V. Jerome Wakefield is a renowned critic of the psycopathologization that, however, has developed an intense work to try to better delimit what a mental disorder is without rejecting this concept. A structured review of the work of this author was carried out. His main approaches are summarized and an assessment of his contribution to the discussion in regards of this issue is performed.

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Introducción: Los factores de riesgo asociados a la depresión han sido estudiados ampliamente, pero no se dispone de estudios prospectivos sobre factores que predigan la incidencia de depresión en personas sanas. Tampoco se dispone de una ecuación predictiva que incorpore factores genéticos. Método: Estudio de cohorte, prospectivo con evaluaciones en línea base y a los doce meses, sobre una muestra aleatoria de consultantes en centros de atención primaria de la Provincia de Concepción, Chile (n = 1.596). Se midieron 8 factores psicosociales y se realizó genotificación de los polimorfismos para la monoaminooxidasa A, la uMAO, y para la región transportadora del gen del transportador de serotonina, el 5-HTTLPR, gen SLC6A4 del cromosoma 17, como factores genéticos y la variable de resultado fue la presencia/ausencia de depresión a los 12 meses de seguimiento. Se empleó regresión logística binaria. Resultados: Las dos variables genéticas no muestran relación estadísticamente significativa con la variable depresión a los 12 meses de seguimiento. Las variables sexo, nivel educacional, satisfacción con las condiciones de vida, antecedente personal de depresión, autopercepción de la salud física y de la salud mental y satisfacción con las relación de pareja se relacionan con la aparición de depresión en el seguimiento. Conclusiones: Los resultados permitirán identificar personas vulnerables entre los consultantes de atención primaria que podrían participar de programas preventivos. El estudio de otros genes será necesario para mejorar la capacidad predictiva del modelo.

Introduction: Riskfactors associated to depression have been extensively studied, though there is a lack ofprospective studies on factors thatpredict the incidence of depression in healthy people. There is not a predictive equation that incorporates genetic factors is not available. Method: A cohort study, prospective, with baseline assessments at 12 months was carried out on a random sample of attendees in primary care centers form the Concepción Province, Chile (n = 1,596). Eight psychosocial factors were measured and the genotyping of the uMAO and 5-HTTLPR in SLC6A4 as genetic factors polymorphisms was also carried out. The outcome variable was the presence/absence of depression at 12 months follow-up. A predictive model for depression was obtained by means of analyses of binary logistic regression. Results: Genetic variables have no statistically significant relation with the variable depression at 12 months follow up. Variables such as gender, educational level, satisfaction with living conditions, personal background ofdepression, selfperception ofboth physical and mental health and satisfaction with relationship are related to the onset ofdepression in the follow up. Conclusions: Outcomes will allow identifying vulnerable people among the primary care attendees, who could participate in prevention programs. The study offurther genes will be necessary in order to improve the predictive capacity of the model.

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Introduction: In Chile there are scarce validated instruments in order to perform categorical psychiatric diagnosis both in children and adolescents. DISC-IV Spanish version validation indexes are presented. Method: A convenience sample was collected from outpatient psychiatric services as well as from private medical facilities and drug-dependence outpatient centres from Concepción, Chile. Subjects of both genders between 7 and 18 years of age, with a psychiatric diagnosis were included in the study (affective disorder, anxiety, drugs abuse and dependence, and behaviour disorder). In addition 18 subjects without psychiatric disorder were selected from a secondary school. Each selected subject that agreed to participate in the study was interviewed by a clinical experienced child psychiatrist, diagnose-blinded, using DSM-IV check list, in order to decide if the subject fulfilled DSM-IV criteria. Later, to patients 12 years old or older, or to their caregiver for children younger than 12 years DISC-IV was applied by some of the previously trained lay interviewers. Quality controls of the interviews were carried out. Data were entered to SPSS file to obtain DISC-IV validation indexes. Results: 144 subjects were incorporated in the study. Cohen's Kappa indexes, a statistical measure of inter-rater agreement, varied between 0.53 for anxiety disorders, and 0.88 for substance abuse and dependence. Every group presented high specificity ranging between 0.55 and 0.83. Interviews answered by adolescents were less sensitive for TDA (0.23) and anxiety (0.40), whereas in parents, sensitivity decreases for affective disorders (0.50). Conclusion: DISC-IV is a valid instrument to be used in the research about children and adolescent mental health...

Introducción: En Chile existen escasos instrumentos validados para efectuar diagnósticos psiquiátricos categoriales en población infantil y adolescente. Se presentan los índices de validación obtenidos para la versión en español del DISC-IV. Método: Una muestra por conveniencia fue seleccionada de los registros clínicos de los servicios de psiquiatría ambulatorios de Concepción, consultas privadas y centros de atención a drogodependientes. Ésta incluyó a sujetos de ambos sexos, con edades entre 7 y 18 años, que presentaran algún diagnóstico incluido en el estudio (trastornos del ánimo, ansiosos, abuso y dependencia a sustancias y trastornos del comportamiento). Además se seleccionaron de un establecimiento educacional a 18 sujetos sin diagnóstico psiquiátrico. Cada sujeto seleccionado que aceptó participar del estudio, y el cuidador responsable, fueron entrevistados por un psiquiatra infantil entrenado, ciego al diagnóstico inicial, utilizando un check-list basado en los criterios DSM-IV, para obtener diagnósticos categoriales. Posteriormente, entrevistadores legos previamente capacitados, aplicaron al paciente, si tenía 12 años o más, o a su cuidador principal, para los menores de 12 años, la entrevista estructurada DISC-IV. Se realizaron controles de calidad de las entrevistas. Los datos fueron ingresados a un archivo SPSS para ser procesados y obtener índices de validación del DISC-IV. Resultados: Ciento cuarenta y cuatro sujetos ingresaron al estudio. Los Índice Kappa de Cohen, que miden el acuerdo inter-evaluadores, varían entre ,53, para los trastornos ansiosos, y ,88, para abuso y dependencia. En todos los grupos la especificidad es alta (> 0,9) y la sensibilidad varía entre ,55y ,83. Las entrevistas respondidas por adolescentes son menos sensibles para TDA (0,23) y ansiedad (0,40), mientras en los padres la sensibilidad disminuye para los cuadros afectivos (0,50)...

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Se destaca el rol de la epidemiología psiquiátrica evolutiva científica para ayudar a la comprensión de las causas y factores de riesgo para trastornos psiquiátricos, evaluar las trayectorias evolutivas y proponer estrategias preventivas y terapéuticas. Se resumen los estudios sobre edades de comienzo, factores de riesgo y protectores, prevalencia de trastornos psiquiátricos y uso de servicios tanto en Latinoamérica como en otros países. Se informa sobre el primer estudio de prevalencia en niños y adolescentes chilenos, su metodología y resultados. Se aplicó en los hogares la versión computarizada de la entrevista DISC-IV. La prevalencia total fue de 22,5%, siendo el grupo de trastornos de comportamiento disruptivo los mas frecuentes, seguidos por los trastornos ansiosos. Se detallan los factores asociados a cada grupo de trastornos y la comorbilidad entre ellos. 41,6% de los niños y adolescentes con Trastorno psiquiátrico asociado a discapacidad social consultó en algún tipo de servicio en el último año. La información derivada de esta investigación prestará utilidad para el desarrollo y perfeccionamiento de programas de salud mental en el país.

The role of scientific developmental psychiatric epidemiology is highlighted in the study of causal and risk factors, evaluation of developmental trajectories and proposal of preventive and therapeutic strategies. Studies on ages of onset, risk and protective factors, prevalence of psychiatric disorders and service use in Latin America and other countries are summarized. Information about methodology and results of the first chilean community epidemiological study are given. Computarized versión of DISC-IV interview was used in the homes. Total prevalence for any disorder was 22,5%, the most frequent being disruptive disorders followed by anxiety disorders. Associated factors and comorbidity for each group of disorders is detailed. 41,6% of children with a disorder associated with psychosocial impairment had sought assistance in some kind of service. Information derived from this study will be useful for the development and improvement of mental health programs in the country.

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Introducción: El término "carga" se refiere a las consecuencias negativas que son el resultado de suministrarle cuidados a un paciente con una enfermedad mental severa. El propósito de este estudio es adaptar y validar la Entrevista de Carga Familiar Objetiva y Subjetiva (ECFOS) en una muestra de cuidadores de pacientes con esquizofrenia, evaluando la validez de constructo del instrumento y su confiabilidad en términos de consistencia interna y estabilidad temporal. Método: Se entrevistó un total de 150 cuidadores primarios de pacientes con esquizofrenia con la Entrevista de Carga Familiar Objetiva y Subjetiva (ECFOS), con la Escala Multidimensional de Apoyo Social Percibido (MSPSS por sus siglas en inglés), con la escala Zarit para evaluar la carga del cuidador y con el Cuestionario de Calidad de Vida de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (WHOQol-Brief). Resultados: El análisis factorial exploratorio mostró la existencia de seis factores que explican el 45.21% de varianza. La consistencia interna de cada uno de los factores después de la primera aplicación del instrumento arrojó valores alfa que fluctuaron desde 0.77 a 0.88, en tanto que después de la segunda aplicación, tales valores estuvieron en el rango de 0,67 a 0,87. Con respecto a la confiabilidad test-retest, después de un intervalo de un mes se encontraron correlaciones moderadas a altas, en el rango de 0,49 a 0,77. Conclusiones: A pesar de las diferencias encontradas entre la versión original española del instrumento y su versión adaptada, los resultados obtenidos demuestran que la versión adaptada de la Entrevista de Carga Familiar Objetiva y Subjetiva es un instrumento confiable y válido para evaluar la carga que los pacientes con esquizofrenia representaban para sus cuidadores primarios.

Introduction: The term 'burden' refers to the negative consequences resulting from providing care to a patient with a serious mental disease. The aim of this study is to adapt and validate the Subjective and Objective Family Burden Interview (ECFOS) in a sample of caregivers ofpatients with schizophrenia, by assessing the construct validity of the survey and its reliability in terms of internal consistency and temporal stability. Method: A total of 150 primary caregivers ofpatients with schizophrenia were interviewed with the Subjective and Objective Family Burden Interview (ECFOS), the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), the Zarit scale for assessing caregiver burden and the World Health Organization Quality of Life questionnaire (WHOQol-Brief). Results: The exploratory factor analysis showed the existence of six factors that explain 45.21% of the variance. The internal consistency of each of the factors after the first application ofthe instrument yielded alpha values thatfluctuated from 0.77 to 0.88, while after the second application, such values ranged from 0.67 to 0.87. Regarding the test-retest reliability, after an interval of a month moderate to high correlations were found, ranging from 0.49 to 0.77. Conclusions: In spite of the differences found between the original Spanish version of the instrument and its adapted version, the results obtained demonstrate that the adapted version of the Subjective and Objective Family Burden Interview is a valid and reliable instrument to assess the burden presented by patients with schizophrenia to their primary caregivers.

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Introduction: The juvenile delinquency has grown worldwide in alarming form in the last time, a multicausality is recognized in the origin of this phenomenon, but it becomes necessary to identify the importance of each one of this causes, and its specific impact in the time. Objective: To identify individual, educational and family factors associated with criminal conduct in a sample of adolescent offenders. Method: Observational study, crossectional, of case-control. From a universe of adolescents between 12 years old and 17 years with 11 months and 30 days, offenders, imprisoned in penal or protection institutions, a convenience sample of 100 adolescents was chosen, which was equalled in gender, age range, and socioeconomic level with a control group of the same size. To both groups a battery of instruments, DISC IV, WISC-R or WAIS, and the Family History Screen, was applied. Results: During the 12 months prior to the study 64 percent of the offenders and 18 percent of the controls presented a psychiatric diagnosis. Among the offenders the most prevalent disorder were conduct disorder (46.99 percent), abuse of alcohol (26 percent) and dependence of other substances (18 percent); among the control group the most prevalent were attentional deficit disorder (5 percent) and conduct disorder (5 percent). There are statically significant differences between both groups when measuring the intellectual level of functiong, 31 percent) of the offenders were in the rank of borderline and 34 percent> of controls were classified as low average. Conclusions: Lower intellectual capacity, school failures, number of sexual partners and conduct disorder were the variables that better predicted inclusion in the group of juvenile offenders.

La delincuencia juvenil ha crecido en forma alarmante. Se reconoce en el origen del fenómeno una multicausalidad, pero se hace necesario identificar y ponderar eventuales causas y medir su impacto específico. Objetivo: Identificar prevalencias de patología psiquiátrica y variables individuales, educacionales y familiares asociadas con conductas delictivas en una muestra de adolescentes infractores de ley. Método: Estudio observacional, transversal, de caso-control. De un universo de adolescentes entre 12 y 17 años, infractores, recluidos en instituciones penales o de protección, se eligió una muestra por conveniencia de 100 sujetos y una muestra control pareada por edad y nivel socioeconómico. A ambos grupos se aplicó una batería de instrumentos, incluyendo DISC-IV, WISC-R ó WAIS, Cuestionario de Estilos de Vida y FHS. Resultados: Un 64 por ciento de los adolescentes infractores de ley y 18 por ciento de sus pares, presentaban algún diagnóstico psiquiátrico durante los doce meses previos a la entrevista. Los cuadros más prevalentes en los adolescentes infractores son trastorno disocial (46,9 por ciento), abuso de alcohol (26 por ciento) y dependencia a otras sustancias (18 por ciento). En los adolescentes no infractores son más prevalentes el déficit atencional con hieractividad (5 por ciento) y el trastorno disocial (5 por ciento). Hay diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre ambos grupos en la medición de coeficiente intelectual, un 31 por ciento) de infractores está en el rango de inteligencia limítrofe y un 34 por ciento en normal lento. Conclusiones: Menor capacidad intelectual, antecedentes de repitencia, mayor número de parejas sexuales y presencia de un trastorno disocial son las variables que mejor predicen la pertenencia al grupo de adolescentes infractores de ley.

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Chile has one of the highest disease burdens caused by neuropsychiatric illnesses in the world, according to WHO, reaching to 31 percent- Major depression and alcohol use disorders are ranked first and second in attributed disability among adults. Nearly one-third of the population has had a psychiatric disorder in their lifetime, and 22.2 percent in the past year. Anxierty disorders are the most prevalent conditions, followed by major depression and alcohol abuse. Currently, mental health accounts for 2.3 percent) of the health care budget, which is less than some neighboring countries. The availability of 1.3 psychiatric beds per 10,000 inhabitants, is less than the mean of lower-income countries. Moreover, 81 percent are for chronic rather than acute care. Chile has 4.0 psychiatrist per 100,000 inhabitants, which is lower than other countries in Latin America. Only 38.5 percent of those patients with a psychiatric diagnosis receive any kind of mental health care, whether from a specialist or primary care. There is a perception among lay persons, that psychiatric treatments lack efficacy, despite evidence demonstrating the contrary. Not addressing the treament gap in mental health has serious public health implications.

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Chile has one of the highest disease burdens caused by neuropsychiatric illnesses in the world, according to WHO, reaching to 31%. Major depression and alcohol use disorders are ranked first and second in attributed disability among adults. Nearly one-third of the population has had a psychiatric disorder in their lifetime, and 22.2% in the past year. Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent conditions, followed by major depression and alcohol abuse. Currently, mental health accounts for 2.3%) of the health care budget, which is less than some neighboring countries. The availability of 1.3 psychiatric beds per 10,000 inhabitants, is less than the mean of lower-income countries. Moreover, 81% are for chronic rather than acute care. Chile has 4.0 psychiatrist per 100,000 inhabitants, which is lower than other countries in Latin America. Only 38.5% of those patients with a psychiatric diagnosis receive any kind of mental health care, whether from a specialist or primary care. There is a perception among lay persons, that psychiatric treatments lack efficacy, despite evidence demonstrating the contrary. Not addressing the treatment gap in mental health has serious public health implications.

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Background: The Diagnostic and Statistic Manual (DSM) solved the problem of diagnostic criteria for psychiatric diseases. Highly structured interviews such as Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) allow the evaluation of psychiatric disorders in large samples, whith great accuracy. Aim: To report the prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders in a representative sample of Chilean individuals. Material and methods: The CIDI was administered to 2978 Chilean individuals coming form four provinces. Lifetime and prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders, based in the third revision of the DSM, were calculated. Results: Thirty six percent of the population had a psychiatric disorder at least once in their lifetime and 23 percent had a disorder in the last six months. The most common lifetime diagnoses were agoraphobia in 11 percent, major depressive disorders in 9 percent, dysthymia in 8 percent and alcohol dependence in 6 percent. Only 49 percent of those with a psychiatric disorder sought medical care, while 4 percent of those individuals considered devoid of psychiatric illnesses, consulted in a mental health facility. Conclusions: The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in the Chilean population is similar to that of other Spanish speaking populations in Latin or North America

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