RESUMEN

Gender dysphoria (GD) reflects distress caused by incongruence between one's experienced gender identity and one's natal (assigned) gender. Previous studies suggest that high levels of prenatal testosterone (T) in natal females and low levels in natal males might contribute to GD. Here, we investigated if the 2D:4D digit ratio, a biomarker of prenatal T effects, is related to GD. We first report results from a large Iranian sample, comparing 2D:4D in 104 transwomen and 89 transmen against controls of the same natal sex. We found significantly lower (less masculine) 2D:4D in transwomen compared to control men. We then conducted random-effects meta-analyses of relevant studies including our own (k = 6, N = 925 for transwomen and k = 6, N = 757 for transmen). In line with the hypothesized prenatal T effects, transwomen showed significantly feminized 2D:4D (d ≈ 0.24). Conversely, transmen showed masculinized 2D:4D (d ≈ - 0.28); however, large unaccounted heterogeneity across studies emerged, which makes this effect less meaningful. These findings support the idea that high levels of prenatal T in natal females and low levels in natal males play a part in the etiology of GD. As we discuss, this adds to the evidence demonstrating the convergent validity of 2D:4D as a marker of prenatal T effects.

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RESUMEN

Preschool play behaviors have been frequently shown to be associated with prenatal androgens. It has also been proposed that incongruent sex-typed play behaviors in childhood is associated with gender dysphoria in adulthood in both men and women. Most of these studies, however, have been conducted in western countries. In this study, we investigated the recalled childhood play behavior among a total number of 339 Iranian participants (n = 72 transwomen, n = 92 transmen, n = 75 cisgender men and n = 100 cisgender women) using Preschool Activity Inventory (PSAI). We found that PSAI mean scores of the four groups were significantly different (F(3,335 = 223.5, p < 0.001)). Both transmen and cisgender men scored significantly more masculine than transwomen and cisgender women but had no different with each other. Transwomen scored significantly more feminine than cisgender men and cisgender women. Our findings are in line with previous studies that suggest gender nonconforming play behaviors may be associated with gender dysphoria in adulthood. It also emphasizes the importance of this finding for in non-western clinical context and its implications.

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RESUMEN

Background: Ambivalent sexist attitudes have been previously measured regarding several factors such as sex, race and religion. Aims: In this study, we evaluated the ambivalent sexism among Iranian individuals with gender dysphoria with or without disorders of sex development (DSD). Methods: Attitudes towards gender stereotypes were investigated using Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI) among three groups of participants with varying psychosexual outcome. These groups were transpeople (N = 152, M = 25.44, SD = 6.52), people with DSD (N = 40, M = 21.2, SD = 2.24) and cisgender people (N = 195, M = 25.9, SD = 5.59). Results: Significant differences in both types of sexism, benevolent (F (2,383) = 134.217, p < .001) and hostile (F (2,383) = 93.765, p < .001), were found between transpeople, participants with DSD and controls. While scores of transpeople and people with DSD were not significantly different from each other (p = 0.191, Cohen's d = 0.38), both groups were significantly more sexist than controls on hostile sexism (p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.4 and 1.1). In benevolent sexism, there were significant differences between the scores of the trans, DSD and control groups, with individuals with DSD being most sexist followed by transgender people (p < 0.001) and controls showing the least degree of sexism (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Using the Gender Self-Socialization Model (GSSM), we propose that increased scores of ASI among individuals whose gender identity is incongruent with all or some of their physical features are attempts to attain gender typicality. This may lead to a higher degree of sexist beliefs than when all sex and gender characteristics are congruent.