RESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Efforts to expand access to family planning in rural Africa often focus on the deployment of community health agents (CHAs). METHODS: This paper reports on results of the impact of a randomized cluster trial of CHA deployment on contraceptive uptake among 3078 baseline and 2551 endline women of reproductive age residing in 50 intervention and 51 comparison villages in Tanzania. Qualitative data were collected to broaden understanding of method preference, reasons for choice, and factors that explain non-use. RESULTS: Regression difference-in-differences results show that doorstep provision of oral contraceptive pills and condoms was associated with a null effect on modern contraceptive uptake [p = 0.822; CI 0.857; 1.229]. Discussions suggest that expanding geographic access without efforts to improve spousal and social support, respect preference for injectable contraceptives, and address perceived risk of side-effects offset the benefits of adopting contraceptives provided by community-based services. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study demonstrate that increasing access to services does not necessarily catalyze contraceptive use as method choice and spousal dynamics are key components of demand for contraception. Findings attest to the importance of strategies that respond to the climate of demand. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Controlled-Trial.com ISRCTN96819844. Retrospectively registered on 29.03.2012.
Asunto(s)
Condones/provisión & distribución , Conducta Anticonceptiva/estadística & datos numéricos , Anticonceptivos Orales/provisión & distribución , Atención a la Salud/estadística & datos numéricos , Servicios de Planificación Familiar/estadística & datos numéricos , Atención Primaria de Salud/normas , Adolescente , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Persona de Mediana Edad , Estudios Retrospectivos , Población Rural , Tanzanía , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Estimation of unmet need for contraception is pursued as a means of defining the climate of demand for services and the rationale for family planning programmes. The stagnation of levels of unmet need, as assessed by Demographic and Health Surveys, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, has called into question the practical utility of this measure and its relevance to policies and programmes in settings where evidence-based guidance is needed the most. This paper presents evidence from qualitative research conducted in rural Tanzania that assesses the diverse context in which pregnancy intentions and contraceptive behaviours are formed. The multi-level sets of influences on intentions and behaviours - that is, the dichotomous components used to calculate unmet need for family planning - are reviewed and discussed. While results lend support to the concept that unmet need exists and that services should address it, they also attest to the synergistic influences of individual, spousal, organisational and societal factors that influence the implementation of childbearing preferences. Altogether, the analysis suggests that ways for assessing and addressing unmet need in Tanzania, and similar settings, be revised to reflect contextual influences that not only shape individual preferences, but constrain how individuals implement them.
Asunto(s)
Conducta Anticonceptiva , Servicios de Planificación Familiar/estadística & datos numéricos , Necesidades y Demandas de Servicios de Salud/estadística & datos numéricos , Intención , Adolescente , Adulto , Conducta Anticonceptiva/psicología , Femenino , Conocimientos, Actitudes y Práctica en Salud , Humanos , Embarazo , Investigación Cualitativa , Esposos/psicología , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , TanzaníaRESUMEN
Provider perspectives have been overlooked in efforts to address the challenges of unmet need for family planning (FP). This qualitative study was undertaken in Tanzania, using 22 key informant interviews and 4 focus group discussions. The research documents perceptions of healthcare managers and providers in a rural district on the barriers to meeting latent demand for contraception. Social-ecological theory is used to interpret the findings, illustrating how service capability is determined by the social, structural and organizational environment. Providers' efforts to address unmet need for FP services are constrained by unstable reproductive preferences, low educational attainment, and misconceptions about contraceptive side effects. Societal and organizational factors--such as gender dynamics, economic conditions, religious and cultural norms, and supply chain bottlenecks, respectively--also contribute to an adverse environment for meeting needs for care. Challenges that healthcare providers face interact and produce an effect which hinders efforts to address unmet need. Interventions to address this are not sufficient unless the supply of services is combined with systems strengthening and social engagement strategies in a way that reflects the multi-layered, social institutional problems.
Asunto(s)
Anticoncepción , Servicios de Planificación Familiar/organización & administración , Personal de Salud , Necesidades y Demandas de Servicios de Salud/organización & administración , Adulto , Anticoncepción/normas , Anticoncepción/estadística & datos numéricos , Servicios de Planificación Familiar/estadística & datos numéricos , Femenino , Grupos Focales , Personal de Salud/psicología , Personal de Salud/estadística & datos numéricos , Necesidades y Demandas de Servicios de Salud/estadística & datos numéricos , Humanos , Masculino , Embarazo , Tanzanía/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
OBJECTIVES: To determine how infant feeding recommendations can maximize HIV-free survival (HFS) among HIV-exposed, uninfected African infants, balancing risks of breast milk-associated HIV infection with setting-specific risks of illness and death associated with replacement feeding. DESIGN: Validated mathematical model of HIV-exposed, uninfected infants, with published data from Africa. METHODS: We projected 24-month HFS using combinations of: maternal CD4, antiretroviral drug availability, and relative risk of mortality among replacement-fed compared to breastfed infants ('RR-RF', range 1.0-6.0). For each combination, we identified the 'optimal' breastfeeding duration (0-24 months) maximizing HFS. We compared HFS under an 'individualized' approach, based on the above parameters, to the WHO 'public health approach' (12 months breastfeeding for all HIV-infected women). RESULTS: Projected HFS was 65-93%. When the value of RR-RF is 1.0, replacement feeding from birth maximized HFS. At a commonly reported RR-RF value (2.0), optimal breastfeeding duration was 3-12 months, depending on maternal CD4 and antiretroviral drug availability. As the value of RR-RF increased, optimal breastfeeding duration increased. Compared to the public health approach, an individualized approach improved absolute HFS by less than 1% if RR-RF value was 2.0-4.0, by 3% if RR-RF value was 1.0 or 6.0, and by greater amounts if access to antiretroviral drugs was limited. CONCLUSION: Tailoring breastfeeding duration to maternal CD4, antiretroviral drug availability, and local replacement feeding safety can optimize HFS among HIV-exposed infants. An individualized approach leads to moderate gains in HFS, but only when mortality risks from replacement feeding are very low or very high, or antiretroviral drug availability is limited. The WHO public health approach is beneficial in most resource-limited settings.
Asunto(s)
Lactancia Materna , Infecciones por VIH/prevención & control , Infecciones por VIH/transmisión , Transmisión Vertical de Enfermedad Infecciosa/prevención & control , Modelos Teóricos , Adulto , África , Fármacos Anti-VIH/uso terapéutico , Recuento de Linfocito CD4 , Preescolar , Femenino , Guías como Asunto , Infecciones por VIH/tratamiento farmacológico , Infecciones por VIH/inmunología , Humanos , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Embarazo , Organización Mundial de la SaludRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) released revised guidelines for prevention of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission (PMTCT). We projected clinical impacts, costs, and cost-effectiveness of WHO-recommended PMTCT strategies in Zimbabwe. METHODS: We used Zimbabwean data in a validated computer model to simulate a cohort of pregnant, HIV-infected women (mean age, 24 years; mean CD4 count, 451 cells/µL; subsequent 18 months of breastfeeding). We simulated guideline-concordant care for 4 PMTCT regimens: single-dose nevirapine (sdNVP); WHO-recommended Option A, WHO-recommended Option B, and Option B+ (lifelong maternal 3-drug antiretroviral therapy regardless of CD4). Outcomes included maternal and infant life expectancy (LE) and lifetime healthcare costs (2008 US dollars [USD]). Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs, in USD per year of life saved [YLS]) were calculated from combined (maternal + infant) discounted costs and LE. RESULTS: Replacing sdNVP with Option A increased combined maternal and infant LE from 36.97 to 37.89 years and would reduce lifetime costs from $5760 to $5710 per mother-infant pair. Compared with Option A, Option B further improved LE (38.32 years), and saved money within 4 years after delivery ($5630 per mother-infant pair). Option B+ (LE, 39.04 years; lifetime cost, $6620 per mother-infant pair) improved maternal and infant health, with an ICER of $1370 per YLS compared with Option B. CONCLUSIONS: Replacing sdNVP with Option A or Option B will improve maternal and infant outcomes and save money; Option B increases health benefits and decreases costs compared with Option A. Option B+ further improves maternal outcomes, with an ICER (compared with Option B) similar to many current HIV-related healthcare interventions.
Asunto(s)
Fármacos Anti-VIH/uso terapéutico , Infecciones por VIH/transmisión , Transmisión Vertical de Enfermedad Infecciosa/prevención & control , Niño , Simulación por Computador , Análisis Costo-Beneficio , Femenino , Infecciones por VIH/tratamiento farmacológico , Humanos , Esperanza de Vida , Guías de Práctica Clínica como Asunto , Embarazo , Organización Mundial de la Salud , Adulto Joven , ZimbabweRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) has called for the "virtual elimination" of pediatric HIV: a mother-to-child HIV transmission (MTCT) risk of less than 5%. We investigated uptake of prevention of MTCT (PMTCT) services, infant feeding recommendations, and specific drug regimens necessary to achieve this goal in Zimbabwe. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We used a computer model to simulate a cohort of HIV-infected, pregnant/breastfeeding women (mean age, 24 y; mean CD4, 451/µl; breastfeeding duration, 12 mo). Three PMTCT regimens were evaluated: (1) single-dose nevirapine (sdNVP), (2) WHO 2010 guidelines' "Option A" (zidovudine in pregnancy, infant nevirapine throughout breastfeeding for women without advanced disease, lifelong combination antiretroviral therapy for women with advanced disease), and (3) WHO "Option B" (pregnancy/breastfeeding-limited combination antiretroviral drug regimens without advanced disease; lifelong antiretroviral therapy with advanced disease). We examined four levels of PMTCT uptake (proportion of pregnant women accessing and adhering to PMTCT services): reported rates in 2008 and 2009 (36% and 56%, respectively) and target goals in 2008 and 2009 (80% and 95%, respectively). The primary model outcome was MTCT risk at weaning. The 2008 sdNVP-based National PMTCT Program led to a projected 12-mo MTCT risk of 20.3%. Improved uptake in 2009 reduced projected risk to 18.0%. If sdNVP were replaced by more effective regimens, with 2009 (56%) uptake, estimated MTCT risk would be 14.4% (Option A) or 13.4% (Option B). Even with 95% uptake of Option A or B, projected transmission risks (6.1%-7.7%) would exceed the WHO goal of less than 5%. Only if the lowest published transmission risks were used for each drug regimen, or breastfeeding duration were shortened, would MTCT risks at 95% uptake fall below 5%. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of the WHO PMTCT guidelines must be accompanied by efforts to improve access to PMTCT services, retain women in care, and support medication adherence throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding, to approach the "virtual elimination" of pediatric HIV in Zimbabwe. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.