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Biofilms are frequently related to invasive fungal infections and are reported to be more resistant to antifungal drugs than planktonic cells. The structural complexity of the biofilm as well as the presence of a polymeric extracellular matrix (ECM) is thought to be associated with this resistant behavior. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after room temperature glutaraldehyde-based fixation, have been used to study fungal biofilm structure and drug susceptibility but they usually fail to preserve the ECM and, therefore, are not an optimised methodology to understand the complexity of the fungal biofilm. Thus, in this work, we propose a comparative analysis of room-temperature and cryofixation/freeze substitution of Candida albicans biofilms for SEM observation. Our experiments showed that room-temperature fixative protocols using glutaraldehyde and osmium tetroxide prior to alcohol dehydration led to a complete extraction of the polymeric ECM of biofilms. ECM from fixative and alcohol solutions were recovered after all processing steps and these structures were characterised by biochemistry assays, transmission electron microscopy and mass spectrometry. Cryofixation techniques followed by freeze-substitution lead to a great preservation of both ECM structure and C. albicans biofilm cells, allowing the visualisation of a more reliable biofilm structure. These findings reinforce that cryofixation should be the indicated method for SEM sample preparation to study fungal biofilms as it allows the visualisation of the EMC and the exploration of the biofilm structure to its fullest, as its structural/functional role in interaction with host cells, other pathogens and for drug resistance assays.

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C8-desaturated and C9-methylated glucosylceramide (GlcCer) is a fungal-specific sphingolipid that plays an important role in the growth and virulence of many species. In this work, we investigated the contribution of Aspergillus nidulans sphingolipid Δ8-desaturase (SdeA), sphingolipid C9-methyltransferases (SmtA/SmtB) and glucosylceramide synthase (GcsA) to fungal phenotypes, sensitivity to Psd1 defensin and Galleria mellonella virulence. We showed that ΔsdeA accumulated C8-saturated and unmethylated GlcCer, while gcsA deletion impaired GlcCer synthesis. Although increased levels of unmethylated GlcCer were observed in smtA and smtB mutants, ΔsmtA and wild-type cells showed a similar 9,Me-GlcCer content, reduced by 50% in the smtB disruptant. The compromised 9,Me-GlcCer production in the ΔsmtB strain was not accompanied by reduced filamentation or defects in cell polarity. When combined with the smtA deletion, smtB repression significantly increased unmethylated GlcCer levels and compromised filamentous growth. Furthermore, sdeA and gcsA mutants displayed growth defects and raft mislocalization, which were accompanied by reduced neutral lipids levels and attenuated G. mellonella virulence in the ΔgcsA strain. Finally, ΔsdeA and ΔgcsA showed increased resistance to Psd1, suggesting that GlcCer synthesis and fungal sphingoid base structure specificities are relevant not only to differentiation but also to proper recognition by this antifungal defensin.

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Fusarium species have emerged as one of the more outstanding groups of clinically important filamentous fungi, causing localized and life-threatening invasive infections with high morbidity and mortality. The ability to produce different types of hydrolytic enzymes is thought to be an important virulence mechanism of fungal pathogens and could be associated with the environment of the microorganism. Here, we have measured the production of two distinct lipolytic enzymes, phospholipase and esterase, by sixteen Fusarium isolates recovered from the hospital environment, immunocompromised patients’ blood cultures, foot interdigital space scrapings from immunocompromised patients, and foot interdigital space scrapings from immunocompetent patients (4 isolates each). Fourteen of these 16 isolates were identified asFusarium solani species complex (FSSC) and two were identified as F. oxysporum species complex (FOSC). Some relevant genus characteristics were visualized by light and electron microscopy such as curved and multicelled macroconidia with 3 or 4 septa, microconidia, phialides, and abundant chlamydospores. All Fusarium isolates were able to produce esterase and phospholipase under the experimental conditions. However, a negative correlation was observed between these two enzymes, indicating that a Fusarium isolate with high phospholipase activity has low esterase activity and vice versa. In addition, Fusarium isolated from clinical material produced more phospholipases, while environmental strains produced more esterases. These observations may be correlated with the different types of substrates that these fungi need to degrade during their nutrition processes.

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Fusarium species have emerged as one of the more outstanding groups of clinically important filamentous fungi, causing localized and life-threatening invasive infections with high morbidity and mortality. The ability to produce different types of hydrolytic enzymes is thought to be an important virulence mechanism of fungal pathogens and could be associated with the environment of the microorganism. Here, we have measured the production of two distinct lipolytic enzymes, phospholipase and esterase, by sixteen Fusarium isolates recovered from the hospital environment, immunocompromised patients' blood cultures, foot interdigital space scrapings from immunocompromised patients, and foot interdigital space scrapings from immunocompetent patients (4 isolates each). Fourteen of these 16 isolates were identified as Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) and two were identified as F. oxysporum species complex (FOSC). Some relevant genus characteristics were visualized by light and electron microscopy such as curved and multicelled macroconidia with 3 or 4 septa, microconidia, phialides, and abundant chlamydospores. All Fusarium isolates were able to produce esterase and phospholipase under the experimental conditions. However, a negative correlation was observed between these two enzymes, indicating that a Fusarium isolate with high phospholipase activity has low esterase activity and vice versa. In addition, Fusarium isolated from clinical material produced more phospholipases, while environmental strains produced more esterases. These observations may be correlated with the different types of substrates that these fungi need to degrade during their nutrition processes.

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La insuficiencia ovárica primaria (IOP) es una condición clínica que describe un estado de disfunción ovárica que se presenta antes de los 40 años. En el 8-9 % de las pacientes se han descripto anomalías del cromosoma X, tanto familiares como esporádicas. Estas incluyen anomalías numéricas como la monosomía o trisomía X, aneuploidías parciales como deleciones o isocromosomas, y anomalías estructurales como las translocaciones X;autosoma (TXA). Presentamos una paciente con diagnóstico de hipogonadismo hipergonadotrófico efectuado a los 18 años, en la que el estudio citogenético reveló un cariotipo 46,X,t(X;11)(q23;q22), interpretándose como una translocación X;autosoma balanceada con punto de ruptura en la región crítica para la función ovárica normal. A los 25 años de edad, bajo tratamiento hormonal sustitutivo cursó un embarazo. Nació una niña con crecimiento y desarrollo normales, con telarca y pubarca a los 11 años. A los 13 años y 3 meses, debido a una detención en el desarrollo puberal, se le diagnosticó un hipogonadismo hipergonadotrófico. El estudio citogenético detectó la traslocación X;autosoma balanceada heredada de su madre. Las mujeres con translocaciones X;autosoma balanceadas frecuentemente desarrollan falla ovárica prematura por interrupción de la región crítica del cromosoma X que se extiende entre Xq13 a Xq27. En conclusión, presentamos dos pacientes (madre e hija) con diagnóstico de una TXA balanceada, y discutimos los aspectos vinculados con las alteraciones de los segmentos del cromosoma X involucrados en el funcionamiento ovárico, así como las consecuencias para su eventual descendencia.

Primary Ovarian Insufficiency (POI) is a clinical condition characterized by ovarian dysfunction before 40 years of age. In 8-9 % of patients, both familial and sporadic chromosome abnormalities have been reported. These include numerical abnormalities such as monosomy or trisomy X, partial aneuploidies, such as deletions or isochromosomes, and structural abnormalities such as X;autosomal translocation (XAT). We report the case of a patient diagnosed with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism at the age of 18, whose cytogenetic study revealed a formula 46,X,t(X;11)(q23;q22), interpreted as an X;autosome balanced translocation with breakpoint in the critical region for normal ovarian differentiation. At the age of 25, under hormone replacement therapy, the patient became pregnant. She gave birth to a girl with normal growth and development, with thelarche and menarche at 11 years old. At the age of 13 years and 3 months, because of an arrest of pubertal development, she was diagnosed with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. The cytogenetic study detected the X;autosome balanced translocation inherited from her mother. Women with X;autosome balanced translocation frequently develop premature ovarian failure because of breakpoints in the critical region of the X chromosome from Xq13 to Xq27. In conclusion, we report the case of two patients (mother and daughter) with a diagnosis of XAT, and discuss molecular genetics issues related to alterations of X chromosome segments involved in ovarian function, as well as the consequences for potential offspring.

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Experiments were performed to determine whether sialic acids are expressed in two dermatophytes: Trichophyton rubrum and T. mentagrophytes, similarly to other fungal pathogens. Chemical extraction of mycelia and microconidia followed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography and colorimetric assays were all negative for sialic acid. Incubation of dermatophytes in the presence of Limax flavus agglutinin, specific for sialic acid, was negative in a fluorescence staining test. We have also used other lectins that bind to sialic acid and/or other sugar residues, and these ligands coupled to fluorescein strongly stained these fungi. Such fluorescence staining was not abolished or reduced when fungi were pretreated with sialidase. Different strains of influenza virus which recognize sialic acid residues were also used, but no agglutination of the dermatophytes was observed. Based on these methods, which successfully revealed the presence of sialic acids in other fungal pathogens, we show that these monosaccharides do not occur in both dermatophyte species. Thus, sialic acids do not seem to play a role in the pathogenicity of these fungi.

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The activity of a phosphatase was characterized in intact mycelial forms of Fonsecaea pedrosoi, a pathogenic fungus that causes chromoblastomycosis. At pH 5.5, this fungus hydrolyzed p-nitrophenylphosphate (p-NPP) to p-nitrophenol (p-NP) at a rate of 12.78 +/- 0.53 nmol p-NP per h per mg hyphal dry weight. The values of Vmax and apparent Km for p-NPP hydrolyses were measured as 17.89 +/- 0.92 nmol p-NP per h per mg hyphal dry weight and 1.57 +/- 0.26 mmol/l, respectively. This activity was inhibited at increased pH, a finding compatible with an acid phosphatase. The enzymatic activity was strongly inhibited by classical inhibitors of acid phosphatases such as sodium orthovanadate (Ki = 4.23 micromol/l), sodium molybdate (Ki = 7.53 micromol/l) and sodium fluoride (Ki = 126.78 micromol/l) in a dose-dependent manner. Levamizole (1 mmol/l) and sodium tartrate (10 mmol/l), had no effect on the enzyme activity. Cytochemical localization of the acid phosphatase showed electrondense cerium phosphate deposits on the cell wall, as visualized by transmission electron microscopy. Phosphatase activity in F. pedrosoi seems to be associated with parasitism, as sclerotic cells, which are the fungal forms mainly detected in chromoblastomycosis lesions, showed much higher activities than conidia and mycelia did. A strain of F. pedrosoi recently isolated from a human case of chromoblastomycosis also showed increased enzyme activity, suggesting that the expression of surface phosphatases may be stimulated by interaction with the host.

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We showed previously that mannose and N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) residues are involved in the process of adhesion of Fonsecaea pedrosoi, the causative agent of chromoblastomycosis, to epithelial cells. It was then suggested that lectin-like molecules would be involved in the interaction. In the present study, we used fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled neoglycoproteins (bovine serum albumin [BSA]-mannose and BSA-GlcNAc) to analyze the presence of sugar-binding proteins on the surface of conidia of F. pedrosoi grown at 28 and 37 degrees C. Binding of the neoglycoproteins was measured using flow cytometry. Fungal conidia expressed high levels of binding sites for BSA-mannose and BSA-GlcNAc when grown at 37 degrees C rather than 28 degrees C. Binding was inhibited by previous incubation of the conidia in the presence of chloroquine and trypsin. Chloroquine treatment also inhibited the interaction of fungal conidia with Chinese hamster ovary cells. Extracts from the conidia, obtained using a mechanical cell homogenizer, were purified by affinity chromatography using mannose-agarose or GlcNAc-agarose column. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the purified material from both columns showed a single protein band of 50 kDa, suggesting that the same lectin-like protein recognizes both carbohydrates.

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A major ceramide monohexoside (CMH) was purified from lipidic extracts of Cryptococcus neoformans. This molecule was analyzed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, and fast atom bombardment-mass spectrometry. The cryptococcal CMH is a beta-glucosylceramide, with the carbohydrate residue attached to 9-methyl-4,8-sphingadienine in amidic linkage to 2-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid. Sera from patients with cryptococcosis and a few other mycoses reacted with the cryptococcal CMH. Specific antibodies were purified from patients' sera by immunoadsorption on the purified glycolipid followed by protein G affinity chromatography. The purified antibodies to CMH (mainly immunoglobulin G1) bound to different strains and serological types of C. neoformans, as shown by flow cytofluorimetry and immunofluorescence labeling. Transmission electron microscopy of yeasts labeled with immunogold-antibodies to CMH and immunostaining of isolated cell wall lipid extracts separated by HPTLC showed that the cryptococcal CMH predominantly localizes to the fungal cell wall. Confocal microscopy revealed that the beta-glucosylceramide accumulates mostly at the budding sites of dividing cells with a more disperse distribution at the cell surface of nondividing cells. The increased density of sphingolipid molecules seems to correlate with thickening of the cell wall, hence with its biosynthesis. The addition of human antibodies to CMH to cryptococcal cultures of both acapsular and encapsulated strains of C. neoformans inhibited cell budding and cell growth. This process was complement-independent and reversible upon removal of the antibodies. The present data suggest that the cryptococcal beta-glucosylceramide is a fungal antigen that plays a role on the cell wall synthesis and yeast budding and that antibodies raised against this component are inhibitory in vitro.

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Fonsecaea pedrosoi is a polymorphic pathogenic fungus, etiological agent of chromoblastomycosis, that synthesizes a melanin-like pigment. Although this pigment has been described as a component of the outer layers of the cell wall, electron-dense cytoplasmic bodies have also been visualized. In this work, we have correlated the appearance of intracellular electron-dense granules with the melanization process in F. pedrosoi. For this, conidial forms were grown under conditions where melanin was not synthesized. Afterwards, cells were incubated in Hank's medium supplemented with bovine fetal serum, at 37 degrees C, to stimulate the pigment production. The genesis of cytoplasmic bodies, with different stages of electron density, was demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy. The appearance of fungal acidic compartments, visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy in cells stained with acridine orange, was time coincident with the formation of electron-dense granules observed by transmission electron microscopy. The quantification of granule numbers as well as morphometric and densitometric studies were performed.

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A retrospective study of 325 cases of chromoblastomycosis diagnosed in the last 55 years in the Amazon region was carried out by the main Mycology services of the state of Pará, Brazil (Department of Tropical Pathology--UFPA and Mycology Department of the Evandro Chagas Institute/FNS). The data obtained showed that: (a) the main age group affected by the diseases range from 41 to 70 years-old, (b) 86.1% of the patients were agricultural-workers, (c) 93.2% of them were males and (d) 80.7% showed lesions on the lower limbs (feet and legs). The diagnosis of 62% of the cases was confirmed by laboratory studies considering the tissue form in histopathological analysis. In 24% of patients (78 cases), the etiological agent was isolated and identified through culture. Fonsecaea pedrosoi was present in 77 cases and Phialophora verucosa in only one case.

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Sialic acids from sialoglycoconjugates present at the cell surface of Cryptococcus neoformans yeast forms were analyzed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography, binding of influenza A and C virus strains, enzymatic treatment, and flow cytofluorimetry with fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled lectins. C. neoformans yeast forms grown in a chemically defined medium contain N-acetylneuraminic acid and its 9-O-acetylated derivative. A density of 3 x 10(6) residues of sialic acid per cell was found in C. neoformans. Sialic acids in cryptococcal cells are glycosidically linked to galactopyranosyl units as inferred from the increased reactivity of neuraminidase-treated yeasts with peanut agglutinin. N-Acetylneuraminic acids are alpha-2,6 and alpha-2,3 linked, as indicated by using virus strains M1/5 and M1/5 HS8, respectively, as agglutination probes. The alpha-2,6 linkage markedly predominated. These findings were essentially confirmed by the interaction of cryptococcal cells with the lectins Sambucus nigra agglutinin and Maackia amurensis agglutinin. We also investigated whether the sialyl residues present in C. neoformans are involved in the fungal interaction with a cationic solid-phase substrate and with mouse resident macrophages. Adhesion of yeast cells to poly-L-lysine was mediated, in part, by sialic acid residues, since the number of adherent cells was markedly reduced after treatment with bacterial neuraminidase. The enzymatic removal of sialic acids also made C. neoformans yeast cells more susceptible to endocytosis by macrophages. The results show that sialic acids are components of the cryptococcal cell surface that contribute to its negative charge and protect yeast forms against phagocytosis.

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In order to better understand the role played by surface glycoconjugates during cell adhesion and endocytosis by the dematiaceous fungi Fonsecaea pedrosoi, we analyzed the interaction between this microorganism and five mutants of Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, which differ from each other in the exposition of carbohydrate residues on the cell surface. Five clones (Gat-2 parental, and the clones: Lec1, Lec2, Lec8 and ldlLec1) were tested and the adhesion and endocytic indexes were determined after 2 hours of interaction. The Lec1 and ldlLec1 clones, which present exposed mannose residues, showed the greater adhesion index (AI). On the other hand, the Lec8 clone, which exposes N-acetylglucosamine on the cell surface, presented the greater endocytic index. The role played by surface-exposed carbohydrate residues was further analyzed by addition of mannose or N-acetylglucosamine to the interaction medium and by previous incubation of the cells in the presence of the lectins Concanavalin A (ConA) and wheat germ agglutinin (WGA). The results obtained suggest that mannose residues are involved in the first step of adhesion of F. pedrosoi to the cell surface, while N-acetylglucosamine residues are involved on its ingestion process.

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The induction of a granulomatous reaction is frequently observed in subcutaneous mycoses. Our previous studies demonstrated that Fonsecaea pedrosoi was able to survive and proliferate in tissue macrophages and that activated macrophages were fungistatic but not fungicidal. By contrast, our present studies revealed that neutrophils were able to kill F. pedrosoi cells in periods shorter than 20 min. Several phases of the interaction process were analysed by light and electron microscopy. The kinetic analysis demonstrated no significant difference during the first hour of F. pedrosoi-neutrophil interaction. Electron microscopy images showed that neutrophils readily associated with and killed extracellular fungi; however, few fungi were ingested. During this process the activation of respiratory burst took place as evaluated by light and electron microscopy. Cytochemical activity of acid and alkaline phosphatase was detected in low levels during the host cell parasite interaction.

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Light and electron microscopy were used to analyze in vitro the interaction of Fonsecaea pedrosoi with in vivo activated-macrophages. Adherence of the fungi to the surface of activated macrophages triggers the respiratory burst as revealed by reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium. Transmission electron microscopy revealed NAD(PO)H-oxidase activity in the portions of the macrophage plasma of membrane that were in contact with the fungus as well as within phagocytic vacuoles. Activated macrophages failed to kill ingested fungi, but they showed a fungistatic activity delaying germ tube and hyphae formation.

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