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STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine if postoperative gabapentin administration is associated with decreased opioid consumption or pain scores following cesarean delivery in women on chronic buprenorphine. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Postoperative recovery area and postpartum inpatient unit. PATIENTS: 214 women undergoing cesarean delivery while on chronic buprenorphine at a single institution between 2007 and 2017. INTERVENTIONS: Gabapentin treatment for post-cesarean analgesia. MEASUREMENTS: The primary outcome was opioid consumption in morphine milligram equivalents, comparing patients who received ≥1 dose of gabapentin within 24 h of cesarean delivery to those who did not. Secondary outcomes included opioid consumption 24-48 and 48-72 h post-cesarean and postoperative numerical rating scale pain scores. MAIN RESULTS: Of 214 included patients, 64 (30%) received gabapentin while 150 (70%) did not. Gabapentin patients were more likely than controls to have received neuraxial fentanyl (30% vs. 14%, p = 0.01) and transversus abdominis plane block (6% vs. 1%, p = 0.05) and overall received higher doses of ketorolac and acetaminophen. Control patients were more likely to have received neuraxial morphine (78% vs. 90%, p = 0.04) and received higher doses of ibuprofen. In unadjusted analysis, there was no significant difference in morphine milligram equivalent consumption 0-24 h postoperatively between gabapentin (55 mg [IQR 26,84]) and control (53 mg [IQR 28,75]) groups (p = 0.38). After controlling for potential confounders, there remained no significant effect of gabapentin administration (overall effect p = 0.99). Opioid consumption and pain scores were also not significantly different at any other time points. CONCLUSIONS: In parturients receiving chronic buprenorphine, inclusion of gabapentin in a multimodal analgesic regimen was not associated with lower opioid consumption or pain scores during the first 72 h after cesarean delivery. Prospective randomized studies are needed to confirm these findings.

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BACKGROUND: The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education establishes minimum case requirements for trainees. In the subspecialty of obstetric anesthesiology, requirements for fellow participation in nonobstetric antenatal procedures pose a particular challenge due to the physical location remote from labor and delivery and frequent last-minute scheduling. OBJECTIVES: In response to this challenge, we implemented an informatics-based notification system, with the aim of increasing fellow participation in nonobstetric antenatal surgeries. METHODS: In December 2014 an automated email notification system to inform obstetric anesthesiology fellows of scheduled nonobstetric surgeries in pregnant patients was initiated. Cases were identified via daily automated query of the preoperative evaluation database looking for structured documentation of current pregnancy. Information on flagged cases including patient medical record number, operating room location, and date and time of procedure were communicated to fellows via automated email daily. Median fellow participation in nonobstetric antenatal procedures per quarter before and after implementation were compared using an exact Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test due to low baseline absolute counts. The fraction of antenatal cases representing nonobstetric procedures completed by fellows before and after implementation was compared using a Fisher's exact test. RESULTS: The number of nonobstetric antenatal cases logged by fellows per quarter increased significantly following implementation, from median 0[0,1] to 3[1,6] cases/quarter (p = 0.007). Additionally, nonobstetric antenatal cases completed by fellows as a percentage of total antenatal cases completed increased from 14% in preimplementation years to 52% in postimplementation years (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Through an automated email system to identify nonobstetric antenatal procedures in pregnant patients, we were able to increase the number of these cases completed by fellows during 3 years following implementation.

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BACKGROUND: Sugammadex binds progesterone with high affinity and may interfere with hormonal contraceptive effectiveness. The clinical, economical, and ethical implications of unintended pregnancy should prompt anesthesiologists to actively consider and manage this pharmacologic interaction. We surveyed anesthesiology providers at our institution about knowledge of this potential adverse drug interaction, how they manage it clinically, and the extent to which they involve patients in shared decision-making regarding choice of neuromuscular blocker antagonist. METHODS: A survey instrument was distributed to anesthesiology providers at a large, tertiary-care medical center. The survey explored prior experience using neostigmine and sugammadex, knowledge about potential sugammadex interference with hormonal contraception, pre-/postoperative counseling practices, clinical management, and shared decision-making regarding potential use of neostigmine in lieu of sugammadex to avoid this drug-drug interaction. RESULTS: Of 259 surveys distributed, 155 were fully completed, and 10 were partially completed. Overall response rate was 60% (residents 85%, student nurse anesthetists 53%, certified registered nurse anesthetists 58%, attendings 48%). All but 1 respondent recognized the potential for sugammadex interference with oral hormonal contraception. Far fewer accurately identified potential interference with hormonal intrauterine devices (44%) and hormonal contraceptive implants (55%). The manufacturer's recommended 7-day duration of alternative contraception was correctly identified by 72% of respondents; others (22%) reported longer durations (range 10-30 days). Most (78% overall) agreed/strongly agreed that potential interference with contraceptive effectiveness should be discussed with patients preoperatively. Despite the majority (86% overall) that endorsed shared decision-making and inviting patient input regarding choice between sugammadex and neostigmine, many respondents reported "rarely/never" having discussed this drug interaction with patients in actual clinical practice, either preoperatively (67%) or postoperatively (80%). Furthermore, most respondents (79%) reported "rarely/never" administering neostigmine to intentionally avoid this drug interaction. CONCLUSIONS: Two years after designating sugammadex as antagonist of choice, physician and nurse anesthesia providers reported seldom inquiring about contraceptive use among women of childbearing potential and rarely discussing potential risk of contraceptive failure from sugammadex exposure. Most lack accurate knowledge of sugammadex interference with hormonal intrauterine and subcutaneous contraceptive devices. Although most endorse preoperative counseling and support patient autonomy or shared decision-making regarding choice of reversal agent, the same respondents report rarely, if ever, actualizing these positions in clinical practice. These conflicting findings highlight the need for education regarding residual neuromuscular block versus adverse drug interactions, collaboration among providers involved in patient counseling, and intentional mindfulness of reproductive justice when caring for women of childbearing potential.

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BACKGROUND: Strategies to curb overprescribing have focused primarily on the prescriber as the point of intervention. Less is known about how to empower patients to use fewer opioids and decrease the quantity of leftover opioids. Previous studies in nonobstetrical populations suggest that patient counseling about appropriate opioid use improves disposal of unused opioids and overall knowledge about opioid use. Less is known about whether counseling reduces opioid use after hospital discharge. OBJECTIVE: This study examines whether enhanced discharge counseling on optimal analgesic use after cesarean delivery reduces opioid use and improves proper disposal of unused opioids and opioid use knowledge after hospital discharge. STUDY DESIGN: Women who underwent an uncomplicated cesarean delivery were randomized to enhanced counseling on optimal analgesic use or usual care. Enhanced counseling addressed the following 4 points: (1) pain is normal after cesarean delivery; (2) scheduled ibuprofen should be taken to maintain baseline pain control; (3) opioids should be used sparingly and should be tapered over several days; and (4) all unused opioids should be returned to pharmacy or flushed in a toilet. All participants received 30 tablets of 5 mg hydrocodone-acetaminophen and 30 tablets of 600 mg ibuprofen at discharge. They were contacted 14 days later to determine opioid use and location of leftover opioids and to complete a 10-question analgesic strategies quiz with a score of 1 to 10. We estimated that outcome data on 172 women total would provide an 80% power to detect a 30% reduction in postdischarge opioid use with enhanced counseling. RESULTS: Notably, 79% of eligible women consented to the study and 175 of 196 participants (84 enhanced counseling, 91 usual care) completed the follow-up. Compared with usual care, the enhanced counseling group was more likely to follow recommendations for proper opioid disposal (risk ratio, 2.3; 95% confidence interval, 1.3-3.9). They also scored significantly higher on the analgesic strategies quiz (10 points [interquartile range, 9-10] vs 8 points [interquartile range, 7-9]; P<.001) than the usual care group. Although the enhanced counseling group used less opioids (7.5 tablets [interquartile range, 2-15] vs 10.0 tablets [interquartile range, 2-16]; P=.55) and a smaller proportion of prescribed opioids (25.0% [6.7-50.0] vs 33.3% [6.7-53.3], P=.55) than the usual care group, differences were not statistically significant. There was no statistically significant evidence of interaction between participant education level and any of the study outcomes. CONCLUSION: Enhanced discharge opioid counseling doubled the frequency of participants reporting proper opioid disposal and improved overall knowledge about the risks associated with opioids. This intervention did not decrease opioid use in a population of women with low overall opioid use. These findings highlight possible methods to intervene on the short-term (misuse and diversion) and long-term (persistent opioid use) consequences of overprescribing.

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Since its clinical introduction in 2008, sugammadex has demonstrated a high degree of safety and superior effectiveness compared to neostigmine when used to antagonize muscle relaxation produced by steroid nondepolarizing neuromuscular blockers. This includes its use in special populations, such as the elderly, children over 2 years old, and patients with renal, hepatic, or lung disease. In contrast, clinical evidence guiding its use during pregnancy, in women of childbearing potential, and in lactating women, is sparse. An exception is administration at the end of surgery in parturients undergoing cesarean delivery (CD) with general anesthesia (GA), for whom effectiveness and safety evidence is rapidly accumulating. We review evidence regarding sugammadex rescue reversal shortly after high-dose rocuronium in cases of cannot intubate/cannot ventilate (CICV), the extent of placental transfer of maternally administered sugammadex, adverse fetal effects of sugammadex exposure, potential effects on maintenance of early pregnancy, and the extent of transfer to breast milk. Finally, many anesthesiologists appear to heed the manufacturer's warning regarding informing women of childbearing potential regarding the risk of hormone contraceptive failure after sugammadex exposure. We provide a medical ethics analysis of the ex post facto counseling commonly reported after sugammadex administration, which favors either preoperative discussion and shared decision making, or the decision by the physician to use neostigmine. This review highlights the disparity in evidence regarding sugammadex use in various contexts of female reproductive health, including current research gaps that prevent this population from sharing in the benefits of sugammadex enjoyed by most perioperative patients.

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A pregnant patient with chronic regional pain syndrome (CRPS) and indwelling spinal cord stimulator presented with twin gestation for induction of preterm labor due to preeclampsia. Intravenous magnesium was initiated and a lumbar epidural catheter was placed uneventfully for labor analgesia. The patient reported complete relief of her CRPS-associated pain during and for 24 hours after delivery, while receiving intravenous magnesium, with her pain symptoms returning shortly after discontinuing magnesium. To our knowledge, there are no case reports that describe CRPS-associated pain relief while on peripartum magnesium therapy.

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BACKGROUND: A vast majority of women who choose nitrous oxide for labor report high satisfaction despite variable analgesic effectiveness. We analyzed comments provided by women who used nitrous oxide for labor, to identify determinants of satisfaction in this population, and to better understand reasons for continuing with nitrous oxide despite variable analgesic effectiveness. METHODS: We conducted qualitative content analysis of comments in a quality improvement database of routine follow-up assessments of women who delivered vaginally, using nitrous oxide as the sole labor analgesic. An inductive grounded approach was used and emergent themes and subthemes were identified. RESULTS: Of 6507 vaginal deliveries over 34 months in 2011-2014, 753 (12%) used nitrous oxide as their sole analgesic. Analysis of 264 clarifying comments yielded six emergent themes. Parturients cited nonanalgesic benefits of nitrous oxide use (relaxation, distraction, focus on breathing), as well as partial analgesic effects that they deemed to be sufficient, or consistent with their expectations. Numerous women described their nitrous oxide experience as consistent with their birth plan, including 14 who equated it with natural childbirth. Several comments described nitrous oxide as a vital component of the parturients' birth experience. Some described using nitrous oxide when neuraxial analgesia was not possible. Side effects were identified, as were difficulties using the apparatus/mask. Analysis highlighted importance of timely administration upon request and attention to technical aspects. CONCLUSIONS: Among parturients who choose nitrous oxide as their sole labor analgesic, determinants of satisfaction are more variable than previously understood, and extend beyond analgesia.

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OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether individualized postdischarge oxycodone prescribing guided by inpatient opioid use reduces the number of unused opioid tablets after cesarean birth. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, controlled trial of women aged 18 years or older undergoing cesarean birth. Participants were randomized at discharge in a 1:1 ratio to a standard (30 tablets of 5 mg oxycodone) or an individualized oxycodone prescription (predicted based on each patient's inpatient opioid use). All women were contacted starting 14 days after cesarean birth to assess number of oxycodone tablets used and adequacy of pain control. The Tennessee Controlled Substance Monitoring Database was accessed to confirm dispensed opioids. The primary outcome was number of unused oxycodone tablets prescribed for pain control after cesarean birth. A total sample size of 160 women was necessary to detect a 30% difference in leftover tablets between groups with 80% power and α of 0.05. RESULTS: Between June 14, 2017, and August 26, 2017, we screened 323 women and randomized 172. Baseline characteristics and inpatient opioid use were similar between groups. Women in the individualized group were prescribed fewer tablets (14 [interquartile range 12-16] vs 30 [interquartile range 30-30], P<.001) and had 50% fewer unused tablets than women in the standard group (5 [interquartile range 1-8] vs 10 [interquartile range 0-22], P<.001). Overall, 13% (23/172) used no opioids after discharge and 26% (44/172) used all prescribed opioids. There were no differences between the standard and individualized groups in the proportion of women who used no opioids or all opioids and no difference in the proportion of dispensed opioids used (60% [interquartile range 23-100] vs 61% [29-89], P=.93). Women in the individualized group used only half the number of prescribed opioids as women in the standard group (8 [interquartile range 4-14] vs 15 [interquartile range 6-30], P<.001). Patient-reported pain outcomes did not differ significantly by group. CONCLUSION: Individualized opioid prescribing based on inpatient use reduces the number of unused oxycodone tablets compared with standard prescribing. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03168425.

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A 37-year-old gravida 5 para 4 with gestational hypertension underwent uneventful repeat cesarean delivery and tubal ligation under combined spinal-epidural anesthesia. On postoperative day 3, she developed a postural headache, unrelieved by caffeine, ibuprofen, and hydration. On postoperative day 8, she returned to the hospital for treatment. An epidural blood patch was administered, providing immediate and complete relief of her headache and bilateral upper and lower dental pain, which she noted arising concomitantly with her headache. We suspect bilateral traction on cranial nerve V2 and V3, secondary to intracranial hypotension after dural puncture, as the cause of her pain.

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PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review summarizes evolving knowledge regarding adverse maternal, fetal, and neonatal effects of opioid exposure during pregnancy, and current treatment options for opioid use disorder (OUD). Maternal and fetal implications of maternal opioid maintenance with methadone and buprenorphine are described. Finally, acute and chronic pain management strategies in opioid-tolerant parturients are reviewed. RECENT FINDINGS: Opioid use among parturients has risen dramatically, with opioid use during pregnancy as high as 20%. Of women with chronic pain, most continue to take opioids during pregnancy. Medication-assisted therapy with methadone or buprenorphine is currently the standard for treatment of opiate use disorder. Buprenorphine has unique pharmacologic properties that account for its preference over methadone. It has also been shown to produce more favorable neonatal outcomes compared with methadone. Increased clearance and volume of distribution associated with pregnancy require adjustment of dosing regimens of both medications. Multimodal adjuncts can be important alternatives for treatment of pain in opioid-tolerant parturients. SUMMARY: The dramatic rise in OUD in pregnancy has had staggering socioeconomic consequences, carrying with it profound maternal and fetal health problems. Medication-assisted treatment utilizing either methadone, or more commonly buprenorphine, is considered the standard of care for OUD during pregnancy. Peripartum pain management for opioid-tolerant patients is challenging and requires consideration for regional anesthesia along with multimodal pharmacotherapy.

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The parturient who requests postpartum sterilization has given consideration to and has made decisions regarding this aspect of her medical care long before her delivery. She arrives at parturition expecting the postpartum procedure to be performed as intended. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists has reaffirmed its opinion that postpartum sterilization is an urgent procedure, owing to the safety and superior effectiveness of tubal sterilization via minilaparotomy in the immediate postpartum period, and the adverse consequences for mothers, babies, and society when the procedure is not actualized as desired and intended. In contrast, recent practice guidelines for obstetric anesthesia address anesthetic procedural aspects and short-term safety but overlook the long-term complications and considerations associated with failure to perform postpartum sterilization as planned. In practice, procedure completion rates are strikingly low, reportedly ranging from 31% to 52%. Reasons for failure to complete abound and include inadequate resources or inavailability of necessary personnel; obstetrician reluctance due to concerns for patient regret in younger women or medical comorbidities; barriers related to provision of obstetric care in a religiously affiliated hospital, or incomplete, improperly completed, or unavailable original federal consent forms among Medicaid-insured women. The federal requirement to wait 30 days after signing informed consent, and to retain the original signed document to be physically verified at time of the procedure, serves as a significant source of health care disparity for Medicaid-dependent mothers. This article reviews these larger issues of maternal health and comprehensive maternal care to broaden the anesthesiologist's appreciation of major benefits and potential risks of postpartum sterilization, including long-term effects, to promote an evidence-based, informed, and proactive role in delivering equitable, safe, and optimal care for these patients.

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OBJECTIVE: To characterize postdischarge opioid use and examine factors associated with variation in opioid prescribing and consumption. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational cohort study by recruiting all women undergoing cesarean delivery during an 8-week period, excluding those with major postoperative morbidities or chronic opioid use. Starting on postoperative day 14, women were queried weekly regarding number of opioid pills used, amount remaining, and their pain experience until they had stopped opioid medication. Demographic and delivery information and in-hospital opioid use were recorded. The state Substance Monitoring Program was accessed to ascertain prescription-filling details. Morphine milligram equivalents were calculated to perform opioid use comparisons. Women in the highest quartile of opioid use (top opioid quartile use) were compared with those in the lowest three quartiles (average opioid use). RESULTS: Of 251 eligible patients, 246 (98%) agreed to participate. Complete follow-up data were available for 179 (71% of eligible). Most women (83%) used opioids after discharge for a median of 8 days (interquartile range 6-13 days). Of women who filled their prescriptions (165 [92%]), 75% had unused tablets (median per person 75 morphine milligram equivalents, interquartile range 0-187, maximum 630) and the majority (63%) stored tablets in an unlocked location. This amounts to an equivalent of 2,540 unused 5-mg oxycodone tablets over our study period. Women who used all prescribed opioids (n=40 [22%]) were more likely to report that they received too few tablets than women who used some (n=109 [61%]) or none (n=30 [17%]) of the prescribed opioids (33% compared with 4% compared with 5%, P<.001). The top quartile was more likely to be smokers than average users and consumed more opioid morphine milligram equivalents per hour of inpatient stay than average opioid users (1.6, interquartile range 1.1-2.3 compared with 1.0, interquartile range 0.5-1.4, P<.001). CONCLUSION: Most women-especially those with normal in-hospital opioid use-are prescribed opioids in excess of the amount needed.

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Nitrous oxide, long used during labor in Europe, is gaining popularity in the United States. It offers many beneficial attributes, with few drawbacks. Cost, safety, and side effect profiles are favorable. Analgesic effectiveness is highly variable, yet maternal satisfaction is often high among the women who choose to use it. Despite being less effective in treating labor pain than neuraxial analgesic modalities, nitrous oxide serves the needs and preferences of a subset of laboring parturients. Nitrous oxide should, therefore, be considered for inclusion in the repertoire of modalities used to alleviate pain and facilitate effective coping during labor.

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BACKGROUND: Evidence on the analgesic effectiveness of nitrous oxide for labor pain is limited. Even fewer studies have looked at patient satisfaction. Although nitrous oxide appears less effective than neuraxial analgesia, it is unclear whether labor analgesic effectiveness is the most important factor in patient satisfaction. We sought to compare the relationship between analgesic effectiveness and patient satisfaction with analgesia in women who delivered vaginally using nitrous oxide, neuraxial analgesia (epidural or combined spinal-epidural [CSE]), or both (neuraxial after a trial of nitrous oxide). METHODS: A standardized survey was recorded on the first postpartum day for all women who received anesthetic care for labor and delivery. Data were queried for women who delivered vaginally with nitrous oxide and/or neuraxial labor analgesia over a 34-month period in 2011 to 2014. Parturients with complete data for analgesia quality and patient satisfaction were included. Analgesia and satisfaction scores were grouped into 8 to 10 high, 5 to 7 intermediate, and 0 to 4 low. These scores were compared with the use of ordinal logistic regression across 3 groups: nitrous oxide alone, epidural or CSE alone, or nitrous oxide followed by neuraxial (epidural or CSE) analgesia. RESULTS: A total of 6507 women received anesthesia care and delivered vaginally. Complete data were available for 6242 (96%) women; 5261 (81%) chose neuraxial analgesia and 1246 (19%) chose nitrous oxide. Of the latter, 753 (60%) went on to deliver with nitrous oxide alone, and 493 (40%) switched to neuraxial analgesia. Most parturients who received neuraxial analgesia (>90%) reported high analgesic effectiveness. Those who used nitrous oxide alone experienced variable analgesic effectiveness, with only one-half reporting high effectiveness. Among all women who reported poor analgesia effectiveness (0-4; n = 257), those who received nitrous oxide alone were more likely to report high satisfaction (8-10) than women who received epidural analgesia alone (OR 2.5; 95% CI 1.4-4.5; P = .002). Women who reported moderate analgesia (5-7) and received nitrous oxide only were more likely to report high satisfaction compared with the other groups. Among women who reported a high level of analgesic effectiveness, satisfaction with anesthesia was high and not different among groups. CONCLUSIONS: Patients who received nitrous oxide alone were as likely to express satisfaction with anesthesia care as those who received neuraxial analgesia, even though they were less likely to report excellent analgesia. Although pain relief contributes to the satisfaction with labor analgesia care, our results suggest that analgesia is not the only contributor to maternal satisfaction.

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Expectant mothers and their spouses spend months preparing to eagerly welcome their much-anticipated baby into their family. Stillbirth or a diagnosis of life-limiting fetal anomalies comes as a devastating turn of events for affected women and their families. From the time of diagnosis to intervention (i.e., induction of labor for stillbirth or late termination of pregnancy for fetal anomalies), affected women often feel vulnerable and abandoned, with many experiencing long-term psychological and emotional effects. Knowledge of obstetric management, ethical and medical challenges, and psychological aspects have evolved in recent years. Familiarity with this emerging knowledge better prepares the obstetric anesthesiologist to deliver effective and empathic care. Encounters with women experiencing stillbirth and life-limiting fetal anomalies prompted this review of current evidence regarding parturient' perspectives on their care as they set out on the road to recovery.

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