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This Viewpoint assesses patient access to compassionate use treatments for medical care and advocates a framework for helping to facilitate such access.
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Ensayos de Uso Compasivo , Drogas en Investigación , Humanos , EmpatíaRESUMEN
Importance: Compassionate use (CU) is a treatment option for patients with serious or life-threatening medical conditions that provides access to locally unlicensed medications (generally free of charge) when all available treatment options have been exhausted and enrollment in a clinical trial is not possible. Objective: To examine the disparity in CU access observed across countries and explore the key driving factors. Design Settings and Participants: This study analyzed all Novartis CU requests (for individual/named patients and cohort programs) received between January 1, 2018, and December 31, 2020, and investigated selected country-specific factors for association with request activity. Data analysis was performed from February 2021 to February 2022. Main Outcomes and Measures: Country-specific request activity was quantified using request counts and rates per million population and examined in stratified and multivariable analyses (negative-binomial regression) for association with the following covariates: existence of local CU regulations and their public availability, clinical trial activity, population size, and gross domestic product. Results: During the 36-month observation period, 31 711 CU requests were received from 110 countries, 23 194 (73%) of which came from only 10 high-income countries. All high-income countries combined accounted for 27 612 (87%) of all requests, while lower-middle-income and low-income countries contributed only 1021 (3%). Of all requests, 29 870 (94%) were from countries with CU regulations made publicly available on the internet, and higher request activity was demonstrated in countries conducting more clinical trials. Presence and public availability of CU regulations, population size, gross domestic product, and clinical trial activity were independently associated with the CU request activity in multivariable analysis. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study analyzing Novartis CU requests over a 3-year period, existence and public availability of CU regulations and local clinical trial activity were positively associated with higher CU request rates. The analysis also identified an association between macroeconomic factors and CU request activity, despite the generally free provision of unlicensed therapeutic products. Similar analyses of other comparable experiences are needed to supplement these initial observations. Ultimately, better understanding of factors associated with CU request activity would translate into improved early access to novel lifesaving products for patients with unmet medical needs around the world.
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Ensayos de Uso Compasivo , Estudios de Cohortes , Producto Interno Bruto , Humanos , RentaRESUMEN
Compassionate Use (CU)/Managed Access programs provide access to locally unapproved medicines. As these programs become more global and involve a broader range of products, determining whether patients derive benefit from treatment could provide insights into therapeutic use in a real-word setting with diverse pools of patients. CU primary purpose is to provide treatment and it is not targeting research. However, it is increasingly considered as a source of real-world data. In the absence of a harmonized framework on CU data collection, Novartis developed a company-wide guidance to collect baseline patient data and prospective follow-up information at product resupply. Although this approach has recently been implemented and utilization of this data has been mainly internal to the company so far, the prospective collection of key efficacy parameters in patients receiving therapies via CU could potentially be used as a supportive set of information collected in a real-world setting to be submitted in addition to clinical trial data, if not as a main source of data for regulatory submission.
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BACKGROUND & AIMS: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is secreted by several epithelia and modulates cellular functions by autocrine and paracrine mechanisms. The role of VEGF in cholangiocyte pathophysiology is unknown. We evaluated the role of VEGF in the regulation of cholangiocyte proliferation in rats that underwent bile duct ligation. METHODS: The expression of VEGF-A and VEGF-C and their receptors in cholangiocytes from normal and BDL rats was evaluated. Normal or BDL rats were treated with recombinant-VEGF-A or recombinant-VEGF-C or anti-VEGF antibodies, and proliferation of cholangiocytes was evaluated in situ by morphometry and in vitro by proliferating cell nuclear antigen immunoblots and MTS assay. In vitro, normal rat cholangiocyte cultures were stimulated with r-VEGF-A or r-VEGF-C and proliferation and signal transduction were evaluated. RESULTS: We found that (1) cholangiocytes express messenger RNA and protein for VEGF-A, VEGF-C, VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR-2), and VEGF receptor 3 (VEGFR-3) and secrete VEGF; (2) secretion of VEGF and expression of VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 increases in BDL cholangiocytes; (3) blocking VEGF in vivo by anti-VEGF-A or anti-VEGF-C antibodies decreases cholangiocyte proliferation; (4) the in vivo administration of r-VEGF-A or r-VEGF-C induces cholangiocyte proliferation in normal rats; and (5) in vitro, VEGF-A increases normal rat cholangiocyte culture proliferation by activation of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate/Ca2+/protein kinase C alpha and phosphorylation of Src/ERK1/2. CONCLUSIONS: Cholangiocytes secrete VEGF and express VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3, all of which are amplified in BDL cholangiocytes. VEGF induces cholangiocyte proliferation by activation of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate/[Ca2+]i/protein kinase C alpha and phosphorylation of Src/ERK1/2. VEGF mediates the adaptive proliferative response of cholangiocytes to cholestasis.
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Comunicación Autocrina/fisiología , Conductos Biliares/citología , Proliferación Celular , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/fisiología , Animales , Anticuerpos/farmacología , Conductos Biliares/metabolismo , Calcio/metabolismo , Proliferación Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Células Cultivadas , Hepatocitos/metabolismo , Inositol 1,4,5-Trifosfato/metabolismo , Ligadura , Masculino , Proteínas Quinasas Activadas por Mitógenos/metabolismo , Fosforilación , Proteína Quinasa C-alfa/metabolismo , Ratas , Ratas Endogámicas F344 , Proteínas Recombinantes/farmacología , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/sangre , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/inmunología , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismo , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/farmacología , Factor C de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/inmunología , Factor C de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismo , Factor C de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/farmacología , Receptor 2 de Factores de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismo , Receptor 3 de Factores de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismo , Familia-src Quinasas/metabolismoRESUMEN
The hepatic artery, through the peribiliary plexus, nourishes the intrahepatic biliary tree. During obstructive cholestasis, the nutritional demands of intrahepatic bile ducts are increased as a consequence of enhanced proliferation; in fact, the peribiliary plexus (PBP) displays adaptive expansion. The effects of hepatic artery ligation (HAL) on cholangiocyte functions during cholestasis are unknown, although ischemic lesions of the biliary tree complicate the course of transplanted livers and are encountered in cholangiopathies. We evaluated the effects of HAL on cholangiocyte functions in experimental cholestasis induced by bile duct ligation (BDL). By using BDL and BDL + HAL rats or BDL + HAL rats treated with recombinant-vascular endothelial growth factor-A (r-VEGF-A) for 1 wk, we evaluated liver morphology, the degree of portal inflammation and periductular fibrosis, microcirculation, cholangiocyte apoptosis, proliferation, and secretion. Microcirculation was evaluated using a scanning electron microscopy vascular corrosion cast technique. HAL induced in BDL rats 1) the disappearance of the PBP, 2) increased apoptosis and impaired cholangiocyte proliferation and secretin-stimulated ductal secretion, and 3) decreased cholangiocyte VEGF secretion. The effects of HAL on the PBP and cholangiocyte functions were prevented by r-VEGF-A, which, by maintaining the integrity of the PBP and cholangiocyte proliferation, prevents damage of bile ducts following ischemic injury.
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Conductos Biliares/efectos de los fármacos , Conductos Biliares/patología , Colestasis/patología , Colestasis/prevención & control , Hígado/efectos de los fármacos , Hígado/patología , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/administración & dosificación , Animales , Conductos Biliares/fisiopatología , Colestasis/fisiopatología , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Arteria Hepática/efectos de los fármacos , Arteria Hepática/patología , Arteria Hepática/fisiopatología , Arteria Hepática/cirugía , Ligadura , Hígado/irrigación sanguínea , Masculino , Ratas , Ratas Endogámicas F344 , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
Chronic cholestatic liver diseases are characterized by impaired balance between proliferation and death of cholangiocytes, as well as vanishing of bile ducts and liver failure. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a bile acid widely used for the therapy of cholangiopathies. However, little is known of the cytoprotective effects of UDCA on cholangiocytes. Therefore, UDCA and its taurine conjugate tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) were administered in vivo to rats simultaneously subjected to bile duct ligation and vagotomy, a model that induces cholestasis and loss of bile ducts by apoptosis of cholangiocytes. Because these two bile acids act through Ca2+ signaling, animals were also treated with BAPTA/AM (an intracellular Ca2+ chelator) or Gö6976 (a Ca2+-dependent protein kinase C-alpha inhibitor). The administration of UDCA or TUDCA prevented the induction of apoptosis and the loss of proliferative and functional responses observed in the bile duct ligation-vagotomized rats. These effects were neutralized by the simultaneous administration of BAPTA/AM or Gö6976. UDCA and TUDCA enhanced intracellular Ca2+ and IP3 levels, together with increased phosphorylation of protein kinase C-alpha. Parallel changes were observed regarding the activation of the MAPK and PI3K pathways, changes that were abolished by addition of BAPTA/AM or Gö6976. These studies provide information that may improve the response of cholangiopathies to medical therapy.
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Conductos Biliares/efectos de los fármacos , Calcio/metabolismo , Colestasis/tratamiento farmacológico , Citoprotección , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Ácido Tauroquenodesoxicólico/administración & dosificación , Ácido Ursodesoxicólico/administración & dosificación , Animales , Apoptosis/efectos de los fármacos , Conductos Biliares/patología , Proliferación Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Colestasis/etiología , Colestasis/metabolismo , Ácido Egtácico/análogos & derivados , Ácido Egtácico/farmacología , Activación Enzimática/efectos de los fármacos , Epitelio/efectos de los fármacos , Epitelio/patología , Ligadura , Masculino , Quinasas de Proteína Quinasa Activadas por Mitógenos/metabolismo , Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinasas/metabolismo , Fosforilación/efectos de los fármacos , Proteína Quinasa C-alfa/metabolismo , Ratas , Ratas Endogámicas F344 , Transducción de Señal , VagotomíaRESUMEN
Loss of parasympathetic innervation after vagotomy impairs cholangiocyte proliferation, which is associated with depressed cAMP levels, impaired ductal secretion, and enhanced apoptosis. Agonists that elevate cAMP levels prevent cholangiocyte apoptosis and restore cholangiocyte proliferation and ductal secretion. No information exists regarding the role of adrenergic innervation in the regulation of cholangiocyte function. In the present studies, we investigated the role of adrenergic innervation on cholangiocyte proliferative and secretory responses to bile duct ligation (BDL). Adrenergic denervation by treatment with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) during BDL decreased cholangiocyte proliferation and secretin-stimulated ductal secretion with concomitant increased apoptosis, which was associated with depressed cholangiocyte cAMP levels. Chronic administration of forskolin (an adenylyl cyclase activator) or beta(1)- and beta(2)-adrenergic receptor agonists (clenbuterol or dobutamine) prevented the decrease in cholangiocyte cAMP levels, maintained cholangiocyte secretory and proliferative activities, and decreased cholangiocyte apoptosis resulting from adrenergic denervation. This was associated with enhanced phosphorylation of Akt. The protective effects of clenbuterol, dobutamine, and forskolin on 6-OHDA-induced changes in cholangiocyte apoptosis and proliferation were partially blocked by chronic in vivo administration of wortmannin. In conclusion, we propose that adrenergic innervation plays a role in the regulation of biliary mass and cholangiocyte functions during BDL by modulating intracellular cAMP levels.
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Agonistas Adrenérgicos/farmacología , Enfermedades de los Conductos Biliares/prevención & control , Conductos Biliares/inervación , Conductos Biliares/metabolismo , AMP Cíclico/metabolismo , Proteína Oncogénica v-akt/metabolismo , Receptores Adrenérgicos/metabolismo , Animales , Enfermedades de los Conductos Biliares/fisiopatología , Conductos Biliares/efectos de los fármacos , Células Cultivadas , Desnervación , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Hígado/efectos de los fármacos , Hígado/inervación , Hígado/metabolismo , Hígado/patología , Masculino , Ratas , Ratas Endogámicas F344RESUMEN
We studied the effect of the inhibitory neurotransmitter, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), in the regulation of cholangiocarcinoma growth. We determined the in vitro effect of GABA on the proliferation of the cholangiocarcinoma cell lines (Mz-ChA-1, HuH-28, and TFK-1) and evaluated the intracellular pathways involved. The effect of GABA on migration of Mz-ChA-1 cells was also evaluated. In vivo, Mz-ChA-1 cells were s.c. injected in athymic mice, and the effects of GABA on tumor size, tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, collagen quantity, and the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and VEGF-C (cancer growth regulators) were measured after 82 days. GABA decreased in vitro cholangiocarcinoma growth in a time-dependent and dose-dependent manner, by both cyclic AMP/protein kinase A- and D-myo-inositol-1,4,5-thriphosphate/Ca(2+)-dependent pathways, leading to down-regulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 phosphorylation. Blocking of GABA(A), GABA(B), and GABA(C) receptors prevented GABA inhibition of cholangiocarcinoma proliferation. GABA inhibited Mz-ChA-1 cell migration and, in vivo, significantly decreased tumor volume, tumor cell proliferation, and VEGF-A/C expression whereas increasing apoptosis compared with controls. An increase in collagen was evident in GABA-treated tumors. GABA decreases biliary cancer proliferation and reduces the metastatic potential of cholangiocarcinoma. GABA may represent a therapeutic agent for patients affected by malignancies of the biliary tract.
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Neoplasias de los Conductos Biliares/tratamiento farmacológico , Colangiocarcinoma/tratamiento farmacológico , Proteínas Quinasas Dependientes de AMP Cíclico/metabolismo , GABAérgicos/uso terapéutico , Proteína Quinasa 1 Activada por Mitógenos/metabolismo , Proteína Quinasa 3 Activada por Mitógenos/metabolismo , Ácido gamma-Aminobutírico/uso terapéutico , Animales , Neoplasias de los Conductos Biliares/enzimología , Neoplasias de los Conductos Biliares/patología , Movimiento Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Proliferación Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Colangiocarcinoma/enzimología , Colangiocarcinoma/patología , Colágeno/metabolismo , AMP Cíclico/farmacología , Humanos , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Ratones Desnudos , Fosforilación , Receptores de GABA-A/metabolismo , Receptores de GABA-B/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal , Células Tumorales Cultivadas , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismo , Factor C de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND/AIMS: To evaluate if increased cholangiocyte cAMP levels alone are sufficient to enhance cholangiocyte proliferation and secretion. METHODS: Normal rats were treated in vivo with forskolin for two weeks. Cholangiocyte apoptosis, proliferation and secretion were evaluated. Purified cholangiocytes from normal rats were treated in vitro with forskolin in the absence or presence of Rp-cAMPs (a PKA inhibitor), PP2 (an Src inhibitor) or PD98059 (a MEK inhibitor). Subsequently, we evaluated cholangiocyte proliferation by determination of proliferating cellular nuclear antigen (PCNA) protein expression by immunoblots. We evaluated if the effects of forskolin on cholangiocyte functions are associated with changes in the cAMP/PKA/Src/MEK/ERK1/2 pathway. RESULTS: Chronic administration of forskolin to normal rats increased the number of ducts, cAMP levels, and secretin-induced choleresis compared to controls. Forskolin-induced increases in cholangiocyte proliferation and secretion were devoid of cholangiocyte necrosis, inflammation and apoptosis. In vitro, in pure isolated cholangiocytes, forskolin increased cholangiocyte proliferation, which was ablated by Rp-cAMPs, PP2 and PD98059. The effects of forskolin on cholangiocyte proliferation were associated with increased activity of PKA, Src Tyrosine 139 (Tyr 139) and ERK1/2. CONCLUSIONS: Modulation of the PKA/Src/MEK/ERK1/2 pathway may be important in the regulation of cholangiocyte growth and secretion observed in cholestatic liver diseases.