RESUMEN
Untreated preoperative anemia increases the risk of morbidity and mortality and there is increasing evidence that early intervention for preoperative anemia improves outcomes after major surgery. Accordingly, anemia management clinics have been established in various institutions in the USA. As an example, the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics outpatient clinic treats pre-surgical anemic patients, who undergo major surgery with anticipated blood loss of more than 500 mL, by providing effective standardized care in a timely manner. This standardized care is an integral part of patient blood management to reduce perioperative blood transfusion and improve patient outcomes. The importance of preoperative anemia management has not yet been sufficiently recognized in Japan. Timely intervention for preoperative anemia should be incorporated into routine pre-surgical patient care in Japan.
Asunto(s)
Anemia , Anemia/terapia , Transfusión Sanguínea , Hemorragia , Hospitales Universitarios , Humanos , Japón , Cuidados Preoperatorios , Estados UnidosRESUMEN
Postoperative vision loss (POVL) after spine surgery is a rare but devastating complication. Because of its rarity (incidence < 0.2%), POVL might not be considered for inclusion in an informed consent by surgeons and anesthesia providers. We present a case of POVL due to posterior ischemic optic neuropathy following prone spine surgery. Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy is characterized by acute painless vison loss that is progressive and irreversible. Our case is atypical because the patient experienced moderate improvement of visual acuity. Increased awareness and understanding of risk factors associated with POVL is an important and timely patient safety topic. In this report we review different pathophysiologies and risk factors for POVL following spine surgery along with recommendations for informed consent and strategies to reduce the incidence of POVL.
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Anestesia/efectos adversos , Neuropatía Óptica Isquémica/diagnóstico , Fracturas de la Columna Vertebral/cirugía , Anciano , Neoplasias Óseas/secundario , Carcinoma de Células Renales/secundario , Diagnóstico Diferencial , Humanos , Neoplasias Renales/patología , Vértebras Lumbares , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética , Masculino , Metástasis de la Neoplasia , Neuropatía Óptica Isquémica/inducido químicamente , Complicaciones Posoperatorias/inducido químicamente , Complicaciones Posoperatorias/diagnóstico , Fracturas de la Columna Vertebral/diagnóstico por imagenRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Operating room (OR) reservoir Staphylococcus aureus isolates have been linked to 50% of surgical site infections. We aimed to assess S aureus transmission dynamics in today's ORs to further guide health care-associated infection prevention. METHODS: Forty OR case-pairs were randomly selected for observation in a 5-month prospective cohort study. Case-pair S aureus transmission dynamics were mapped using OR PathTrac. RESULTS: S aureus pathogens were isolated from ≥1 OR reservoirs in 45.7% (37 of 81) of surgical cases, and epidemiologically related transmission events were confirmed in 22.5% (9 of 40) of case-pairs. Patient skin sites and provider hands provided comparable risk of OR S aureus exposure (19 of 481 patient vs 35 of 1,173 provider hands, relative risk [RR], 1.32; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.77-2.29; Pâ¯=â¯.32). Environmental contamination at case 2 start was higher than at case 1 start (case 2 start 32 of 152 sites with >20 colony-forming units vs case 1 start 7 of 163 sites with >20 colony-forming units; RR, 4.90; 95% CI, 2.23-10.77; P < .0001). The stopcock contamination rate was not significantly different than our prior study in 2008 (19 of 164 2008 vs 8 of 77 2018; RR, 1.12; 95% CI, 0.51-2.43; Pâ¯=â¯.78). All epidemiologically related transmission events involved the between-case mode of transmission and phenotype H. CONCLUSIONS: Current OR S aureus exposure threats reliably include patient skin sites and provider hands. Perioperative S aureus preventive measures should extend from patient decolonization to include improved hand decontamination efforts.
Asunto(s)
Infecciones Estafilocócicas/microbiología , Infecciones Estafilocócicas/transmisión , Staphylococcus aureus/aislamiento & purificación , Infección de la Herida Quirúrgica/microbiología , Infección de la Herida Quirúrgica/transmisión , Infección Hospitalaria/microbiología , Infección Hospitalaria/transmisión , Contaminación de Equipos/prevención & control , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Quirófanos , Estudios Prospectivos , Infecciones Estafilocócicas/prevención & control , Infección de la Herida Quirúrgica/prevención & controlRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Gram-negative organisms are a major health care concern with increasing prevalence of infection and community spread. Our primary aim was to characterize the transmission dynamics of frequently encountered gram-negative bacteria in the anesthesia work area environment (AWE). Our secondary aim was to examine links between these transmission events and 30-day postoperative health care-associated infections (HCAIs). METHODS: Gram-negative isolates obtained from the AWE (patient nasopharynx and axilla, anesthesia provider hands, and the adjustable pressure-limiting valve and agent dial of the anesthesia machine) at 3 major academic medical centers were identified as possible intraoperative bacterial transmission events by class of pathogen, temporal association, and phenotypic analysis (analytical profile indexing). The top 5 frequently encountered genera were subjected to antibiotic disk diffusion sensitivity to identify epidemiologically related transmission events. Complete multivariable logistic regression analysis and binomial tests of proportion were then used to examine the relative contributions of reservoirs of origin and within- and between-case modes of transmission, respectively, to epidemiologically related transmission events. Analyses were conducted with and without the inclusion of duplicate transmission events of the same genera occurring in a given study unit (first and second case of the day in each operating room observed) to examine the potential effect of statistical dependency. Transmitted isolates were compared by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to disease-causing bacteria for 30-day postoperative HCAIs. RESULTS: The top 5 frequently encountered gram-negative genera included Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Brevundimonas, Enterobacter, and Moraxella that together accounted for 81% (767/945) of possible transmission events. For all isolates, 22% (167/767) of possible transmission events were identified by antibiotic susceptibility patterns as epidemiologically related and underwent further study of transmission dynamics. There were 20 duplicates involving within- and between-case transmission events. Thus, approximately 19% (147/767) of isolates excluding duplicates were considered epidemiologically related. Contaminated provider hand reservoirs were less likely (all isolates, odds ratio 0.12, 95% confidence interval 0.03-0.50, P = 0.004; without duplicate events, odds ratio 0.05, 95% confidence interval 0.01-0.49, P = 0.010) than contaminated patient or environmental sites to serve as the reservoir of origin for epidemiologically related transmission events. Within- and between-case modes of gram-negative bacilli transmission occurred at similar rates (all isolates, 7% between-case, 5.2% within-case, binomial P value 0.176; without duplicates, 6.3% between-case, 3.7% within-case, binomial P value 0.036). Overall, 4.0% (23/548) of patients suffered from HCAIs and had an intraoperative exposure to gram-negative isolates. In 8.0% (2/23) of those patients, gram-negative bacteria were linked by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to the causative organism of infection. Patient and provider hands were identified as the reservoirs of origin and the environment confirmed as a vehicle for between-case transmission events linked to HCAIs. CONCLUSIONS: Between- and within-case AWE gram-negative bacterial transmission occurs frequently and is linked by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to 30-day postoperative infections. Provider hands are less likely than contaminated environmental or patient skin surfaces to serve as the reservoir of origin for transmission events.
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Anestesia/efectos adversos , Anestesiología/instrumentación , Anestesiología/métodos , Infecciones por Bacterias Gramnegativas/transmisión , Acinetobacter , Adulto , Anciano , Infección Hospitalaria/prevención & control , Infección Hospitalaria/transmisión , Enterobacter , Contaminación de Equipos , Femenino , Bacterias Gramnegativas , Mano/microbiología , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Moraxella , Análisis Multivariante , Oportunidad Relativa , Quirófanos , Periodo Posoperatorio , Estudios Prospectivos , Pseudomonas , Reproducibilidad de los ResultadosRESUMEN
End-stage renal disease is a prevalent condition that substantially impacts a patient's quality of life. As medical advancements improve function and rates of survival, the number of persons with end-stage renal disease will grow, with orthopaedic surgeons increasingly encountering patients with the disease in their practice. End-stage renal disease is a complex medical condition that is often associated with multiple medical comorbidities. Orthopaedic surgery in patients with this disease is associated with at least a twofold risk of complications and mortality compared with a population without end-stage renal disease. Patients are at an increased risk for cardiovascular, metabolic, hematologic, and infectious complications. Orthopaedic surgeons should be familiar with pertinent issues in the preoperative evaluation and the postoperative management of these patients and should understand the risks of surgery to better inform patients and family. Careful coordination with consulting specialists is necessary to minimize morbidity and improve outcome.
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Enfermedades Óseas/complicaciones , Fallo Renal Crónico , Procedimientos Ortopédicos , Atención Perioperativa/métodos , Complicaciones Posoperatorias , Terapia de Reemplazo Renal/métodos , Medición de Riesgo , Enfermedades Óseas/cirugía , Salud Global , Humanos , Incidencia , Fallo Renal Crónico/complicaciones , Fallo Renal Crónico/diagnóstico , Fallo Renal Crónico/epidemiología , Pruebas de Función Renal , Complicaciones Posoperatorias/epidemiología , Complicaciones Posoperatorias/etiología , Complicaciones Posoperatorias/prevención & control , Tasa de Supervivencia/tendenciasRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Health care worker compliance with hand hygiene guidelines is an important measure for health care-associated infection prevention, yet overall compliance across all health care arenas remains low. A correct answer to 4 of 4 structured questions pertaining to indications for hand decontamination (according to types of contact) has been associated with improved health care provider hand hygiene compliance when compared to those health care providers answering incorrectly for 1 or more questions. A better understanding of knowledge deficits among anesthesia providers may lead to hand hygiene improvement strategies. In this study, our primary aims were to characterize and identify predictors for hand hygiene knowledge deficits among anesthesia providers. METHODS: We modified this previously tested survey instrument to measure anesthesia provider hand hygiene knowledge regarding the 5 moments of hand hygiene across national and multicenter groups. Complete knowledge was defined by correct answers to 5 questions addressing the 5 moments for hand hygiene and received a score of 1. Incomplete knowledge was defined by an incorrect answer to 1 or more of the 5 questions and received a score of 0. We used a multilevel random-effects XTMELOGIT logistic model clustering at the respondent and geographic location for insufficient knowledge and forward/backward stepwise logistic regression analysis to identify predictors for incomplete knowledge. RESULTS: The survey response rates were 55.8% and 18.2% for the multicenter and national survey study groups, respectively. One or more knowledge deficits occurred with 81.6% of survey respondents, with the mean number of correct answers 2.89 (95% confidence interval, 2.78- 2.99). Failure of providers to recognize prior contact with the environment and prior contact with the patient as hand hygiene opportunities contributed to the low mean. Several cognitive factors were associated with a reduced risk of incomplete knowledge including providers responding positively to washing their hands after contact with the environment (odds ratio [OR] 0.23, 0.14-0.37, P < 0.001), disinfecting their environment during patient care (OR 0.54, 0.35-0.82, P = 0.004), believing that they can influence their colleagues (OR 0.43, 0.27-0.68, P < 0.001), and intending to adhere to guidelines (OR 0.56, 0.36-0.86, P = 0.008). These covariates were associated with an area under receiver operator characteristics curve of 0.79 (95% confidence interval, 0.74-0.83). CONCLUSIONS: Anesthesia provider knowledge deficits around to hand hygiene guidelines occur frequently and are often due to failure to recognize opportunities for hand hygiene after prior contact with contaminated patient and environmental reservoirs. Intraoperative hand hygiene improvement programs should address these knowledge deficits. Predictors for incomplete knowledge as identified in this study should be validated in future studies.
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Anestesiología/métodos , Infección Hospitalaria/prevención & control , Desinfección de las Manos/métodos , Higiene de las Manos , Conocimientos, Actitudes y Práctica en Salud , Control de Infecciones/métodos , Adulto , Anciano , Actitud del Personal de Salud , Análisis por Conglomerados , Femenino , Geografía , Personal de Salud , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Curva ROC , Riesgo , Sociedades Médicas , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Estados UnidosRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Little is known regarding the epidemiology of intraoperative Staphylococcus aureus transmission. The primary aim of this study was to examine the mode of transmission, reservoir of origin, transmission locations, and antibiotic susceptibility for frequently encountered S aureus strains (phenotypes) in the anesthesia work area. Our secondary aims were to examine phenotypic associations with 30-day postoperative patient cultures, phenotypic growth rates, and risk factors for phenotypic isolation. METHODS: S aureus isolates previously identified as possible intraoperative bacterial transmission events by class of pathogen, temporal association, and analytical profile indexing were subjected to antibiotic disk diffusion sensitivity. The combination of these techniques was then used to confirm S aureus transmission events and to classify them as occurring within or between operative cases (mode). The origin of S aureus transmission events was determined via use of a previously validated experimental model and links to 30-day postoperative patient cultures confirmed via pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Growth rates were assessed via time-to-positivity analysis, and risk factors for isolation were characterized via logistic regression. RESULTS: One hundred seventy S aureus isolates previously implicated as possible intraoperative transmission events were further subdivided by analytical profile indexing phenotype. Two phenotypes, phenotype P (patients) and phenotype H (hands), accounted for 65% of isolates. Phenotype P and phenotype H contributed to at least 1 confirmed transmission event in 39% and 28% of cases, respectively. Patient skin surfaces (odds ratio [OR], 8.40; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.30-30.73) and environmental (OR, 10.89; 95% CI, 1.29-92.13) samples were more likely than provider hands (referent) to have phenotype P positivity. Phenotype P was more likely than phenotype H to be resistant to methicillin (OR, 4.38; 95% CI, 1.59-12.06; P = 0.004) and to be linked to 30-day postoperative patient cultures (risk ratio, 36.63 [risk difference, 0.174; 95% CI, 0.019-0.328]; P < 0.001). Phenotype P exhibited a faster growth rate for methicillin resistant and for methicillin susceptible than phenotype H (phenotype P: median, 10.32H; interquartile range, 10.08-10.56; phenotype H: median, 10.56H; interquartile range, 10.32-10.8; P = 0.012). Risk factors for isolation of phenotype P included age (OR, 14.11; 95% CI, 3.12-63.5; P = 0.001) and patient exposure to the hospital ward (OR, 41.11; 95% CI, 5.30-318.78; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Two S aureus phenotypes are frequently transmitted in the anesthesia work area. A patient and environmentally derived phenotype is associated with increased risk of antibiotic resistance and links to 30-day postoperative patient cultures as compared with a provider hand-derived phenotype. Future work should be directed toward improved screening and decolonization of patients entering the perioperative arena and improved intraoperative environmental cleaning to attenuate postoperative health care-associated infections.
Asunto(s)
Anestesiología/instrumentación , Infección Hospitalaria/prevención & control , Infección Hospitalaria/transmisión , Infecciones Estafilocócicas/epidemiología , Infecciones Estafilocócicas/transmisión , Adulto , Anciano , Anestesia/efectos adversos , Anestesiología/métodos , Antibacterianos/uso terapéutico , Infección Hospitalaria/epidemiología , Farmacorresistencia Bacteriana , Electroforesis en Gel de Campo Pulsado , Contaminación de Equipos , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Pruebas de Sensibilidad Microbiana , Persona de Mediana Edad , Quirófanos , Fenotipo , Periodo Posoperatorio , Estudios Prospectivos , Factores de Riesgo , Piel/efectos de los fármacos , Staphylococcus aureus , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Enterococci, the second leading cause of health care-associated infections, have evolved from commensal and harmless organisms to multidrug-resistant bacteria associated with a significant increase in patient morbidity and mortality. Prevention of ongoing spread of this organism within and between hospitals is important. In this study, we characterized Enterococcus transmission dynamics for bacterial reservoirs commonly encountered by anesthesia providers during the routine administration of general anesthesia. METHODS: Enterococcus isolates previously obtained from bacterial reservoirs frequently encountered by anesthesiologists (patient nasopharynx and axilla, anesthesia provider hands, and the adjustable pressure-limiting valve and agent dial of the anesthesia machine) at 3 major academic medical centers were identified as possible intraoperative bacterial transmission events by class of pathogen, temporal association, and phenotypic analysis (analytical profile indexing). They were then subjected to antibiotic disk diffusion sensitivity for transmission event confirmation. Isolates involved in confirmed transmission events were further analyzed to characterize the frequency, mode, origin, location of transmission events, and antibiotic susceptibility of transmitted pathogens. RESULTS: Three hundred eighty-nine anesthesia reservoir isolates were previously identified by gross morphology and simple rapid tests as Enterococcus. The combination of further analytical profile indexing analysis and temporal association implicated 43% (166/389) of those isolates in possible intraoperative bacterial transmission events. Approximately, 30% (49/166) of possible transmission events were confirmed by additional antibiotic disk diffusion analysis. Two phenotypes, E5 and E7, explained 80% (39/49) of confirmed transmission events. For both phenotypes, provider hands were a common reservoir of origin proximal to the transmission event (96% [72/75] hand origin for E7 and 89% [50/56] hand origin for E5) and site of transmission (94% [16/17] hand transmission location for E7 and 86% [19/22] hand transmission location for E5). CONCLUSIONS: Anesthesia provider hand contamination is a common proximal source and transmission location for Enterococcus transmission events in the anesthesia work area. Future work should evaluate the impact of intraoperative hand hygiene improvement strategies on the dynamics of intraoperative Enterococcus transmission.
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Anestesia/efectos adversos , Anestesiología/instrumentación , Enterococcus faecalis , Infecciones por Bacterias Grampositivas/microbiología , Infecciones por Bacterias Grampositivas/transmisión , Adulto , Anciano , Anestesiología/métodos , Antibacterianos/uso terapéutico , Infección Hospitalaria/epidemiología , Infección Hospitalaria/microbiología , Infección Hospitalaria/prevención & control , Infección Hospitalaria/transmisión , Electroforesis en Gel de Campo Pulsado , Contaminación de Equipos/prevención & control , Diseño de Equipo , Femenino , Infecciones por Bacterias Grampositivas/epidemiología , Mano/microbiología , Desinfección de las Manos , Humanos , Masculino , Pruebas de Sensibilidad Microbiana , Persona de Mediana Edad , Quirófanos , Fenotipo , Periodo Posoperatorio , Estudios Prospectivos , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
We present a case of severe refractory hypotension in a patient undergoing de-bulking liver resection for massive polycystic liver disease. Emergent trans-oesophageal echocardiography (TOE) revealed dynamic left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) obstruction with systolic anterior motion (SAM) of the anterior mitral leaflet (AML). Notably, he had a structurally normal heart on pre-operative trans-thoracic echocardiography (TTE). Diagnosis of SAM by TOE, possible mechanisms and specific management of refractory hypotension in this context are discussed.
RESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Device-related bloodstream infections are associated with a significant increase in patient morbidity and mortality in multiple health care settings. Recently, intraoperative bacterial contamination of conventional open-lumen 3-way stopcock sets has been shown to be associated with increased patient mortality. Intraoperative use of disinfectable, needleless closed catheter devices (DNCCs) may reduce the risk of bacterial injection as compared to conventional open-lumen devices due to an intrinsic barrier to bacterial entry associated with valve design and/or the capacity for surface disinfection. However, the relative benefit of DNCC valve design (intrinsic barrier capacity) as compared to surface disinfection in attenuation of bacterial injection in the clinical environment is untested and entirely unknown. The primary aim of the current study was to investigate the relative efficacy of a novel disinfectable stopcock, the Ultraport zero, with and without disinfection in attenuating intraoperative injection of potential bacterial pathogens as compared to a conventional open-lumen stopcock intravascular device. The secondary aims were to identify risk factors for bacterial injection and to estimate the quantity of bacterial organisms injected during catheter handling. METHODS: Four hundred sixty-eight operating room environments were randomized by a computer generated list to 1 of 3 device-injection schemes: (1) injection of the Ultraport zero stopcock with hub disinfection before injection, (2) injection of the Ultraport zero stopcock without prior hub disinfection, and (3) injection of the conventional open-lumen stopcock closed with sterile caps according to usual practice. After induction of general anesthesia, the primary anesthesia provider caring for patients in each operating room environment was asked to perform a series of 5 injections of sterile saline through the assigned device into an ex vivo catheter system. The primary outcome was the incidence of bacterial contamination of the injected fluid column (effluent). Risk factors for effluent contamination were identified in univariate analysis, and a controlled laboratory experiment was used to generate an estimate of the bacterial load injected for contaminated effluent samples. RESULTS: The incidence of effluent bacterial contamination was 0% (0/152) for the Ultraport zero stopcock with hub disinfection before injection, 4% (7/162) for the Ultraport zero stopcock without hub disinfection before injection, and 3.2% (5/154) for the conventional open-lumen stopcock. The Ultraport zero stopcock with hub disinfection before injection was associated with a significant reduction in the risk of bacterial injection as compared to the conventional open-lumen stopcock (RR = 8.15 × 10(-8), 95% CI, 3.39 × 10(-8) to 1.96 × 10(-7), P = <0.001), with an absolute risk reduction of 3.2% (95% CI, 0.5% to 7.4%). Provider glove use was a risk factor for effluent contamination (RR = 10.48, 95% CI, 3.16 to 34.80, P < 0.001). The estimated quantity of bacteria injected reached a clinically significant threshold of 50,000 colony-forming units per each injection series. CONCLUSIONS: The Ultraport zero stopcock with hub disinfection before injection was associated with a significant reduction in the risk of inadvertent bacterial injection as compared to the conventional open-lumen stopcock. Future studies should examine strategies designed to facilitate health care provider DNCC hub disinfection and proper device handling.
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Catéteres/microbiología , Contaminación de Equipos/prevención & control , Diseño de Equipo/normas , Mano/microbiología , Personal de Salud/normas , Transmisión de Enfermedad Infecciosa de Profesional a Paciente/prevención & control , Adulto , Anciano , Femenino , Humanos , Control de Infecciones , Inyecciones Intravenosas , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Método Simple Ciego , Células Madre/microbiologíaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Intraoperative stopcock contamination is a frequent event associated with increased patient mortality. In the current study we examined the relative contributions of anesthesia provider hands, the patient, and the patient environment to stopcock contamination. Our secondary aims were to identify risk factors for stopcock contamination and to examine the prior association of stopcock contamination with 30-day postoperative infection and mortality. Additional microbiological analyses were completed to determine the prevalence of bacterial pathogens within intraoperative bacterial reservoirs. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis was used to assess the contribution of reservoir bacterial pathogens to 30-day postoperative infections. METHODS: In a multicenter study, stopcock transmission events were observed in 274 operating rooms, with the first and second cases of the day in each operating room studied in series to identify within- and between-case transmission events. Reservoir bacterial cultures were obtained and compared with stopcock set isolates to determine the origin of stopcock contamination. Between-case transmission was defined by the isolation of 1 or more bacterial isolates from the stopcock set of a subsequent case (case 2) that were identical to reservoir isolates from the preceding case (case 1). Within-case transmission was defined by the isolation of 1 or more bacterial isolates from a stopcock set that were identical to bacterial reservoirs from the same case. Bacterial pathogens within these reservoirs were identified, and their potential contribution to postoperative infections was evaluated. All patients were followed for 30 days postoperatively for the development of infection and all-cause mortality. RESULTS: Stopcock contamination was detected in 23% (126 out of 548) of cases with 14 between-case and 30 within-case transmission events confirmed. All 3 reservoirs contributed to between-case (64% environment, 14% patient, and 21% provider) and within-case (47% environment, 23% patient, and 30% provider) stopcock transmission. The environment was a more likely source of stopcock contamination than provider hands (relative risk [RR] 1.91, confidence interval [CI] 1.09 to 3.35, P = 0.029) or patients (RR 2.56, CI 1.34 to 4.89, P = 0.002). Hospital site (odds ratio [OR] 5.09, CI 2.02 to 12.86, P = 0.001) and case 2 (OR 6.82, CI 4.03 to 11.5, P < 0.001) were significant predictors of stopcock contamination. Stopcock contamination was associated with increased mortality (OR 58.5, CI 2.32 to 1477, P = 0.014). Intraoperative bacterial contamination of patients and provider hands was linked to 30-day postoperative infections. CONCLUSIONS: Bacterial contamination of patients, provider hands, and the environment contributes to stopcock transmission events, but the surrounding patient environment is the most likely source. Stopcock contamination is associated with increased patient mortality. Patient and provider bacterial reservoirs contribute to 30-day postoperative infections. Multimodal programs designed to target each of these reservoirs in parallel should be studied intensely as a comprehensive approach to reducing intraoperative bacterial transmission.