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Pediatric rheumatic diseases present psychosocial challenges for patients and their families. These include (1) adjusting and coping with disease symptoms and limitations; (2) adhering to complex and demanding medical regimens; and (3) coping with chronic pain. This article reviews recent studies on these psychosocial issues for children with pediatric rheumatic diseases. There is a paucity of empirical studies addressing these issues and a clear need for multisite collaborative studies to address the psychosocial needs of patients and families.

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OBJECTIVE: To provide descriptive and outcome information of an outpatient pediatric psychology clinic based in a medical center in a major metropolitan area. METHODS: We coded the characteristics and outcomes of 100 patients prospectively on a number of dimensions. Surveys and interviews were used to gather follow-up information. RESULTS: The majority of patients were Caucasian boys (n = 56 out of 100) between 2 and 12 years of age. The most common reasons for initiating contact with the clinic were assessment of school problems, behavior problems, anger, attention problems, depression, and temper tantrums. Eighty-one percent of the patients saw a therapist for brief treatment, between one and five sessions, and behavioral treatments were administered for the majority. The children's behavior for which the parents sought treatment improved significantly from pre- to posttreatment, as rated by parents and therapists. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, parents were satisfied with the services received and indicated that the recommendations given during therapy were helpful and easy to implement. This study provides general evidence for the effectiveness of pediatric psychology services.

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Chronic pain is a primary clinical manifestation of pediatric rheumatic diseases that for some children persists into adulthood and is associated with increased disability. The "pain puzzle" is presented as a visual and conceptual metaphor for understanding and treating pediatric rheumatic disease related pain. This metaphor is consistent with a biobehavioral model of pain that focuses on the unique and interactive components of nociceptive activity, emotions, cognitions, and behavior in the experience of pain. We describe the parts of the pain puzzle and review the implications for treating pediatric rheumatic disease related pain.

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Assuming that children are goal-oriented, it is suggested that their thoughts are related to two components--agency and pathways. Agency thoughts reflect the perception that children can initiate and sustain action toward a desired goal; pathways thoughts reflect the children's perceived capability to produce routes to those goals. Hope reflects the combination of agentic and pathways thinking toward goals. A six-item dispositional self-report index called the Children's Hope Scale is introduced and validated for use with children ages 8-16. Results suggest that the scale evidence internal consistency, and is relatively stable over retesting. Additionally, the scale exhibits convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity. Limitations and uses of the scale are discussed.

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We examined the effects of a combined education and token system intervention to improve adherence to inhaled corticosteroids for an 8-year-old girl and a 10-year-old boy with asthma. Adherence was measured by an electronic chronolog monitor, and disease outcome was assessed by repeated pulmonary function testing. A withdrawal design demonstrated improved adherence and, for 1 child, an associated improvement in pulmonary function occurred. Methodological and clinical implications are discussed, including variables other than adherence that may affect disease outcome.

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The dearth of theoretically driven research on the predictors of pediatric chronic pain may unwittingly contribute to needless suffering in children and adolescents by underinvestigating a potentially treatable condition. The objective of the present study was to investigate the hypothesized predictive effects of perceived stress on pediatric chronic pain intensity in 148 children and adolescents. Consistent with the a priori Biobehavioral Model of Pediatric Pain, higher perceived stress was predictive of greater pediatric pain intensity. The results are discussed with regard to the implications for cognitive-behavioral pediatric pain treatment.

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Pediatric chronic pain continues to be relatively underinvestigated and undertreated. The objective of the present cross-sectional study was to investigate the emotional distress hypothesized to be concurrently associated with the chronic pain experience in children and adolescents. One hundred and sixty children and adolescents with chronic pain and their parents completed standardized assessment instruments measuring pain intensity, depressive symptoms, state anxiety, trait anxiety, general self-esteem, and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Consistent with the a priori Biobehavioral Model of Pediatric Pain, higher patient-perceived pain intensity was associated with higher depressive and anxious symptoms, lower general self-esteem, and higher behavior problems. The results are discussed in regard to preventing and treating pain and suffering in children and adolescents with chronic pain.

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Evaluated the validity, stability, and clinical utility of the Pediatric Pain Questionnaire (PPQ), a comprehensive, multidimensional instrument for assessing childhood pain. Previous studies demonstrated adequate psychometric properties of the PPQ using small samples. Results of the current study, using a large sample (N = 100) of children and adolescents with chronic pain associated with rheumatic disease, were consistent with initial validation studies. High correlations were found among visual analog scale (VAS) pain intensity ratings obtained from parents, physicians, and patients. Significant correlations also were found between pain ratings and measures of disease activity and functional status. VAS ratings evidenced moderate stability over a 6-month period in this sample of youth with relatively stable disease activity. Other components of the PPQ provide comprehensive information that is clinically useful for treatment planning and evaluation.

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This study examined the psychosocial adjustment of children with asthma compared to children with diabetes, with cancer, and healthy children and the role of functional status in psychosocial adjustment. The total sample included 100 children, aged 8-16 years, (mean = 11.5 years), consisting of 48 boys and 52 girls. Children with asthma scored significantly higher on measures of affective adjustment (depression and internalizing behavior), significantly lower on self-esteem, and evidenced significantly greater functional impairment. Children with cancer missed significantly more school days. After controlling for functional status, no significant differences remained in affective adjustment but absences remained significantly higher for the children with cancer.

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STUDY OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship among postoperative pain severity, serum beta-endorphin level, and serum morphine level in pediatric patients after posterior spinal fusion with instrumentation. DESIGN: A prospective study. SETTING: University-based medical center. PATIENTS: Ten patients age 13-17 years admitted for posterior spinal fusion with instrumentation. INTERVENTIONS: Each subject was administered an initial dose of intravenous morphine 100 micrograms/kg, followed by a constant infusion of 50 micrograms/kg/hour. The primary physician was allowed to titrate the dosage as required to meet the patient's requirement for analgesia. Whole blood was obtained for the analysis of serum morphine and beta-endorphin levels preoperatively, after the initial morphine dose, 24 hours after initiation of the infusion, and before any change in dosage. At each blood sampling time, pain severity ratings were obtained from the subject, nurse, and parent using a 10-point linear scale. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: No statistical difference between serum beta-endorphin values preoperatively and after the initial dose of morphine was observed; mean values were 68 and 60 pg/ml, respectively. The relationships between serum beta-endorphin level and pain scores were statistically significant only for self (subject) pain scores (p = 0.014, r = 0.30). Mean serum morphine level was 21.9 ng/ml for patients with self pain scores of 4 or less. CONCLUSION: The clinical usefulness of serum beta-endorphin as a measure of pain severity was not established under the experimental conditions of this study.

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We evaluated the accuracy of primary health care providers' predictions of parents' adherence to their children's short-term antibiotic regimen and a scheduled follow-up appointment. Adherence predictions were compared with objective measures of the parents' adherence. Providers were poor predictors of nonadherence, greatly overestimating the percentage of parents who would be adherent. Nonadherence is typically addressed by applying adherence improvement strategies to all patients. Recent pediatric research, however, suggests that applying contingency-based interventions for adherent patients can result in later nonadherence if the strategies are withdrawn. Inaccurate predictions of adherence will result in many nonadherent patients not receiving a needed intervention. The results indicate the need for strong behavioral predictors that result in more accurate identification of patient nonadherence to guide further applications of adherence improvement strategies.

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The long-term effects of relaxation training for pediatric headache disorders was determined for 17 of 20 original participants from a prospective control-group experimental design study with random assignment to autogenic relaxation, progressive relaxation, autogenic plus progressive relaxation, or waiting list control groups. Long-term follow-up data were obtained at an average of 51 months post-treatment. All participants reported some increases in headache activity. Participants in the three relaxation treatment groups, however, had significantly more headache-free days and less severe headaches compared to the control group. There were no significant effects of treatment for headache duration, medication intake and rest time due to headache. Twelve of the 13 treated participants indicated relaxation training was effective in relieving headaches, with 7 reporting they practiced relaxation exercises within the past month. The results generally support the long-term benefits of relaxation in reducing headaches originating in childhood.

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This study assessed the validity and reliability of parental ratings of morning stiffness, activity limitations, and pain complaints on a sample of 31 patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA). Parental ratings were found to be significant predictors of active joint counts, accounting for 40% of the variance in joint counts. Internal consistency reliability was moderately high (0.819), but test-retest reliability was moderate to low; this is not unexpected given the fluctuations in symptoms of JRA over time. The results suggest that parental ratings are valid and moderately reliable measures of disease activity in JRA. Regular monitoring of symptoms by parents could be a useful source of information for health care providers in making treatment decisions and can increase parental and patient involvement in the treatment process.

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Compliance with regimens for pediatric rheumatic diseases is often poor, and few studies have evaluated strategies for improving compliance. This study utilized relatively simple behavioral and educational strategies to improve compliance with prednisone for three patients with pediatric rheumatic diseases (systemic lupus erthematosus and dermatomyositis). These strategies were implemented in a pediatric rheumatology setting and resulted in improved compliance that was maintained at 6- and 12-month follow-up. During baseline, patients were found to be overmedicating as well as undermedicating. This study is a systematic replication of an earlier study that demonstrated that behavioral and educational strategies can improve compliance with medications for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. It also raises the possibility of overmedicating as a compliance problem to be managed.

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Children with pediatric rheumatic diseases (PRDs) are required to comply with long-term treatment regimens that may not have immediate beneficial effects or may be required primarily to prevent further morbidity. As with other chronic disease regimens, compliance can be a significant problem that interferes with treatment efficacy and adequate clinical outcomes. This paper reviews (1) the prevalence and types of compliance problems in the management of PRDs; (2) patient/family, disease, and regimen factors that may be associated with treatment noncompliance; and (3) strategies for improving compliance with regimens for PRDs.

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Compliance with regimens for chronic conditions such as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA) is often poor, and the potential benefits of therapy are thus compromised. In this study a compliance intervention involving educational and behavioral strategies was shown effective in improving medication compliance for two of three patients with JRA. The intervention was introduced in a time-lagged fashion (multiple baseline design) with repeated measures of compliance. The strategies were less complex than other compliance interventions, such as token reinforcement strategies, and therefore would be more practical in pediatric outpatient settings.

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